The Double-edged Sword of Tourism: Tourism Development and Local Livelihoods in Komodo District, East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia Author Lasso, Aldi Herindra Published 2017-05-02 Thesis Type Thesis (PhD Doctorate) School Dept Intnl Bus&Asian Studies DOI https://doi.org/10.25904/1912/949 Copyright Statement The author owns the copyright in this thesis, unless stated otherwise. Downloaded from http://hdl.handle.net/10072/370982 Griffith Research Online https://research-repository.griffith.edu.au The Double-edged Sword of Tourism: Tourism Development and Local Livelihoods in Komodo District, East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia by Mr Aldi Herindra LASSO Master of Tourism Management, Bandung Institute of Tourism, Indonesia Department of International Business and Asian Studies Griffith Business School Griffith University Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 2 May 2017 ABSTRACT Tourism development has long been promoted as an effective means of bringing improvements to local communities. However, along with many positive benefits of tourism there are many negative impacts on economic, social and environmental aspects of communities. The introduction of tourism often triggers alterations in the way local people make a living. Such alterations often lead to full tourism-dependent livelihoods, affecting the sustainability of traditional livelihoods due to the unreliability of the tourism industry. This study provides empirical evidence of such alterations in local communities. The research data for this study was collected in Komodo District, West Manggarai, East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia, with the souvenir, tour boat and travel businesses as case studies. Using qualitative methods, this study elaborates the impacts of tourism on local livelihoods, by focusing on: the process of how tourism affected local livelihoods; the opportunities and threats emerging from the impact of tourism; the strategies applied to respond to the challenges; and the locals’ perspectives of influential stakeholders and sustainable tourism development. Although the current businesses provide the local businesspeople with a relatively immediate income, potential challenges have emerged that threaten the sustainability of their tourism-based livelihoods: their full reliance on tourism; fierce competition; extensive low seasons; and their lack of required skills. The locals’ strategies responding to such challenges remain focused on tourism-dependent businesses that have a high reliance on tourism. If tourism declines, the local people will have insufficient alternatives to maintain their livelihoods. Preserving non-tourism- related businesses as a livelihood diversification strategy will significantly increase their ability to cope with difficult times. Keywords: Local livelihoods; tourism development; sustainable livelihood; Indonesia i STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY This work has not previously been submitted for a degree or diploma in any university. To the best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference is made in the thesis itself. Aldi Herindra Lasso (2 May 2017) ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This PhD journey has not been an easy one to go through. There were many obstacles and restrictions before I managed to reach the finishing line. I therefore convey my deepest gratitude to the Lord of my life, Jesus Christ. Only by Your grace and unconditional love I was able to finish this PhD journey. My sincerest gratitude goes to my distinguished supervisors for their remarkable support during the whole process of completing this PhD. We have been through ups and downs, but you were all always there to keep me on the right track. 1. Professor Heidi Dahles You have been an extraordinary supervisor for me throughout the years. You have taught me, not only knowledge and skills, but also life values. You were totally dedicated in supporting me, regardless of the hassles emerging during the journey. I could never count the lessons I have learnt from you. To me you are indeed my Guru. Thank you! 2. Associate Professor Peter Woods Thank you for your directions and inputs along the writing process. Your motivation assisted me to ‘keep the fire burning’. Thank you! 3. Dr Titi Susilowati Prabawa Our long discussions were always insightful for me. Your detailed input has significantly sharpened this study. Thank you! My sincere appreciation is given to my sponsor, the Directorate General of Higher Education of Indonesia, for supporting me from the starting point of this journey until the completion of my study in Australia. I would also like to convey my gratitude to the following prestigious institutions in Indonesia for your assistance and support during the completion of this study: Satya Wacana Christian University, Faculty of Information Technology of SWCU, Department of Tourism Destination of SWCU, and KOPERTIS Area VI. To my most precious ones, my wife, Sally Agustina, and my little angels, Amadea and Gwenn, there will never be a perfect word to describe how you all have supported me in this journey. You all helped motivate me to reach this finishing line. Although I know that I cannot regain the time I should have spent with you all, I would like to express my iii greatest appreciation for what you have sacrificed. One thing I promise, never again in life will we be separated like this again. My gratitude to my parents and extended family in Depok and in-laws in Lampung for your never-ending prayers for me. I am so blessed to have you all. I convey my sincere gratitude to these important people: • I would also like to thank Abbie for your significant assistance. What you did is awesome! • I can’t thank my church congregation members enough for all the assistance they have given to me during my stay in Australia. You guys have really shown me the true meaning of family. • I thank Mekar for your crucial help during the last period of my stay in Australia. • To my fellow Indonesians at Griffith University, thank you for your support. Last, but not least, my sincerest appreciation goes to the institutions (KNP, Government of West Manggarai Regency, Tourism and Culture Department of West Manggarai, and KESBANGPOL) involved in this study. Their facilitation in the fieldwork was remarkable. My local acquaintances: Ronny, Pak Sidiq, Pak Dahlan, Fandy, Fendy, and Pastor Willy, who have greatly helped me during my stay in Komodo District. My sincerest gratitude also goes to all my participants for your time and cooperation during the data collection process. Thank you all! iv CONTENTS ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................. i STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY ......................................................................... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................... iii CONTENTS ............................................................................................................. v LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................. vii LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................... vii PUBLICATION FROM THIS THESIS ............................................................... viii 1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................ 1 1.1 National Tourism Development in Indonesia and Local Tourism Development in Komodo District ................................................................................................................ 1 1.2 Research Background and Research Gaps ............................................................. 4 1.3 The Structure of This Study ................................................................................ 6 2 THE INTERRELATEDNESS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, TOURISM, AND SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOOD: A LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................................... 8 2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 8 2.2 Sustainable Development and Sustainable Tourism Development ........................ 8 2.3 Local Community at the Centre of Tourism Development .................................... 15 2.3.1 Position of Local Community among Various Stakeholders in Tourism Development ......................................................................................................... 15 2.3.2 The Prominence of Local Community in Tourism Development ......................... 17 2.3.3 Conflicts Resulting from Excluding Local Community ....................................... 18 2.3.4 Tourism Impacts on Local Community ................................................................ 20 2.3.5 Possible Roles of External Stakeholders in Supporting Local Community .......... 23 2.4 Tourism in Sustainable Development .................................................................. 25 2.5 Tourism, Sustainable Livelihood, Capital, and Livelihood Strategies .................... 27 2.6 Summary ........................................................................................................... 32 3 METHODOLOGY ......................................................................................... 35 3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................