THE RELIGION OF THE NABATAEANS A Conspectus BY JOHN F. HEALEY BRILL LEIDEN • BOSTON • KOLN 2001 CONTENTS Foreword xi Abbreviations in Text xiii Note on Transliteration of Names xiv List of Maps and Plates and their Sources xv Chapter One: Problems of Method and a Survey of Sources .... 1 Nabataean "Religion" 2 The Study of Dead Religions 3 "Nabataean" Religion 9 The Transformations of Nabataean Religion 13 Syncretism or Assimilation 14 The Sources 17 Epigraphic 17 Archaeological 17 Literary 18 (i) Greek and Latin 18 (ii) Syriac and Arabic 20 Iconographic 21 Onomastic 22 Conclusion 24 Chapter Two: Background: Nabataean History and Trade 25 Nabataean History 25 Nabataean Trade 32 The Nabataean Regions 33 Connections with Arabia 34 Chapter Three: Sacred Places 38 Introduction 38 Religious Installations at Nabataean Sites 39 Petra 39 (i) Temples 39 (ii) Processional Ways 45 (iii) High-places 48 (iv) Locations of Special Cults 49 (v) Tombs 50 V111 CONTENTS Hegra and Ruwafah 53 VVadi Ramm 56 Khirbet et-Tannur and Khirbet edh-Dharih 59 Southern Syria (Hawran) 62 The Negev, Egypt and Sinai 67 Religious Architecture 71 General , 71 Typology of Nabataean Religious Sites 73 Excursus: Architectural and Related Terms 75 Chapter Four: The Nabataean God and Goddess 80 The Nabataean Conception of the Gods 80 Dushara, the Nabataean God 85 Dushara's Assimilation to Non-Nabataean Deities 97 Dushara and Acra, the God of Bosra 97 Dushara and Dionysos 100 Dushara and Zeus 101 Dushara and the Sun (Helios) 102 Conclusions 106 The Nabataean Goddess: Allat, al-cUzza 107 Allat 108 AJ-cUzza 114 Chapter Five: Other Deities Worshipped by the Nabataeans ....120 Kutba and Al-Kutba 120 Deities of Regional Importance 124 Baalshamin 124 Qps 126 Hubal 127 Manotu and Qaysha 132 Foreign Goddesses 137 Isis 137 Atargatis 140 Evidence of Other Deities 141 The Protective Deities 143 Shayc-al-Qawm 143 Personal Deities: the Divine Obodas 147 Family Deities 151 City Deities: Tyches, Sacbu, Gad of the Nabataeans 153 State Deities: the God of the King 154 CONTENTS IX Chapter Six: Images and Rituals 155 Objects ofWorship 155 Cult-niches and Images of Gods 155 The mwtb3 and Altars 158 Sacred Times and Persons 160 Festivals 160 Ritual Action: Offerings 161 Personnel 163 Private Cults 165 The marzeha and the triclinium 165 Tombs and the Dead 169 Religious Formulae 175 "Remembered be ..." 175 "For the life of..." 178 Chapter Seven: The World of Nabataean Religion 181 A Desert Tradition? 184 Aniconism 185 Emergent Monotheism 189 Nabataean Religion in the pre-Islamic Context 191 Bibliography 211 Indices 235.