Iowa State University Capstones, Theses and Graduate Theses and Dissertations Dissertations 2016 Trans*forming understanding of sexual orientation and gender variant minorities: Testing the minority stress model with a diverse sample Karen Elaine Bittner Iowa State University Follow this and additional works at: https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/etd Part of the Social Psychology Commons Recommended Citation Bittner, Karen Elaine, "Trans*forming understanding of sexual orientation and gender variant minorities: Testing the minority stress model with a diverse sample" (2016). Graduate Theses and Dissertations. 15879. https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/etd/15879 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Iowa State University Capstones, Theses and Dissertations at Iowa State University Digital Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in Graduate Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Iowa State University Digital Repository. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Trans*forming understanding of sexual orientation and gender variant minorities: Testing the minority stress model with a diverse sample by Karen Elaine Bittner A dissertation submitted to the graduate faculty in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Major: Psychology Program of Study Committee: Frederick O. Lorenz, Co-Major Professor Susan E. Cross, Co-Major Professor Janet N. Melby Carolyn E. Cutrona Max Guyll Patrick I. Armstrong Iowa State University Ames, Iowa 2016 Copyright © Karen Elaine Bittner, 2016. All rights reserved. ii for Sasha and Sam iii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................x LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................ xii ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................... xiv CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................ 1 CHAPTER II. MINORITY GROUP CLASSIFICATION ................................................. 6 Sexual Orientation ........................................................................................................ 7 Gender Variance ......................................................................................................... 10 General Conclusion ..................................................................................................... 26 CHAPTER III. MINORITY STRESS AND DISTRESS ................................................. 27 Minority Distress: An Overview ................................................................................. 27 Explanations for Minority Distress ............................................................................. 30 The Minority Stress Model ......................................................................................... 48 Interaction Effects of Outness ..................................................................................... 63 Social Support ............................................................................................................. 68 Social Support in the Minority Stress Model .............................................................. 71 Hypotheses .................................................................................................................. 74 CHAPTER IV. METHOD ................................................................................................ 76 Participants .................................................................................................................. 76 Procedure .................................................................................................................... 79 Identity and Outness Measures ................................................................................... 82 Stress Measures ........................................................................................................... 89 Social Support Measures............................................................................................. 93 Psychological and Physical Distress Measures........................................................... 96 Demographics ............................................................................................................. 99 Analytical Approach ................................................................................................. 100 CHAPTER V. RESULTS ............................................................................................... 104 Participation by Recruitment Source ........................................................................ 104 General Demographics.............................................................................................. 105 Identity Demographics .............................................................................................. 107 Groups Comparisons of Levels of Minority Stressors .............................................. 113 Correlations ............................................................................................................... 121 Group Differences in Associations between Minority Stressors and Distress ......... 128 General Summary ..................................................................................................... 176 CHAPTER VI. DISCUSSION........................................................................................ 181 Mean Level Differences in Stressors across Groups ................................................ 183 Associations between Minority Stressors and Distress ............................................ 184 Limitations and Contributions .................................................................................. 197 Conclusions ............................................................................................................... 198 iv APPENDIX A. COMMON TRANSITION STEPS ....................................................... 201 APPENDIX B. COMMUNITY SEXUAL ORIENTATION AND GENDER VARIANT MINORITY ORGANIZATIONS ................................................................ 202 APPENDIX C. COLLEGIATE SEXUAL ORIENTATION AND GENDER VARIANT MINORITY ORGANIZATIONS ................................................................ 205 APPENDIX D. NATIONAL PFLAG CHAPTERS ....................................................... 208 APPENDIX E. GENDER EXPRESSION ...................................................................... 218 APPENDIX F. TRANSGENDER IDENTITY AND OUTNESS ITEMS ..................... 219 APPENDIX G. TRANSGENDER CONGRUENCE SCALE ....................................... 221 APPENDIX H. TRANSGENDER TRANSITION AND SATISFACTION WITH TRANSITION ITEMS.................................................................................................... 222 APPENDIX I. EROTIC RESPONSE AND ORIENTATION SCALE.......................... 224 APPENDIX J. SEXUAL ORIENTATION IDENTITY AND OUTNESS ITEMS ....... 225 APPENDIX K. PERCEIVED STIGMA SCALE ........................................................... 226 APPENDIX L. INTERNALIZED PREJUDICE SCALE .............................................. 228 APPENDIX M. EXPERIENCES WITH DISCRIMINATION AND VIOLENCE SCALE ............................................................................................................................ 230 APPENDIX N. SOCIAL READJUSTMENT RATING SCALE-REVISED ................ 231 APPENDIX O. COMMUNITY CONNECTEDNESS SCALE ..................................... 233 APPENDIX P. SOCIAL PROVISIONS SCALE ........................................................... 234 APPENDIX Q. SOCIAL NETWORK SIZE AND LIST ............................................... 235 APPENDIX R. SYMPTOM CHECKLIST-90-REVISED ............................................. 236 APPENDIX S. SUICIDE BEHAVIORS QUESTIONNAIRE-REVISED .................... 237 APPENDIX T. MEDICAL OUTCOMES STUDY 36-ITEM SHORT-FORM HEALTH SURVEY........................................................................................................ 238 APPENDIX U. GENERAL PHYSICAL HEALTH ....................................................... 239 APPENDIX V. DEMOGRAPHIC ITEMS..................................................................... 240 v APPENDIX W. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR PILOT STUDY DATA .............. 245 APPENDIX X. DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS FOR PARTICIPANTS IN THE FULL STUDY .................................................................................................. 256 APPENDIX Y. EFFECTS OF MINORITY STRESSORS AND OUTNESS ON ANXIETY FOR HETEROSEXUAL AND CISGENDER PARTICIPANTS IN THE FULL STUDY ....................................................................................................... 265 APPENDIX Z. EFFECTS OF MINORITY STRESSORS AND OUTNESS ON DEPRESSION FOR HETEROSEXUAL AND CISGENDER PARTICIPANTS IN THE FULL STUDY ....................................................................................................... 266 APPENDIX AA. EFFECTS OF MINORITY STRESSORS AND OUTNESS ON SUICIDE BEHAVIORS FOR HETEROSEXUAL AND CISGENDER PARTICIPANTS IN THE FULL STUDY ..................................................................... 267 APPENDIX AB. EFFECTS OF MINORITY STRESSORS AND OUTNESS ON EMOTIONAL ROLE LIMITATIONS FOR HETEROSEXUAL AND CISGENDER PARTICIPANTS IN THE FULL STUDY.............................................