Framing and Contesting a Revolution: Identity Construction, Gender, and Rebel Group Cohesion in Colombia by Rachel Schmidt A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Affairs in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor in Philosophy in International Affairs Carleton University Ottawa, Ontario © 2020 Rachel Schmidt Abstract The literature on rebel group cohesion and desertion from armed groups offers a variety of explanations for patterns of disengagement from armed violence, including government pressure, in-group violence, disillusionment in the group’s cause, networks, and trauma. But most of the disengagement literature focuses on men who have deserted their groups, with much less information on those who stay until ordered to disarm—and almost no analysis on women who disarm. The lack of comparative analysis between deserters and loyalists limits what we understand or can predict about rebel group cohesion. In addition, this literature has failed to adequately explore the role of gender norms, even though hyper- masculinity, narratives of brotherhood, and feminization of the enemy are well-established mechanisms for increasing troop cohesion in militaristic groups. Based on over 100 in-depth interviews with former guerrillas and paramilitaries in Colombia, this dissertation argues that framing contests and related identity constructions are critical in insurgencies and civil war, and that the outcome of these contests influences individual decisions to disengage from violence and the experiences of ex-combatants after demobilization. Second, I argue that how these competing frames operationalize gender norms influences not only troop cohesion but also the way combatants calculate their investments in the group and possible alternatives. As a result, even recruits that are not fully committed may stay for lack of alternatives. Conversely, recruits may desert their group only to face the stigmatizing consequences of government narratives in civilian life. This study examines what variables produce these outcomes, emphasizing the role of framing contests and arguing that ignoring gender in rebel group cohesion has left a significant gap in our understanding of both desertion and post-conflict reintegration. ii Acknowledgements While all dissertations take time, this one has been a particularly long journey, marked with many unexpected interruptions. There are so many people to thank, it is hard to determine where to begin. First, I want to thank Jim Ron, my MA supervisor and first PhD supervisor, without whom I never would have pursued doctoral studies. Thank you for always pushing me beyond what I thought I could do, and for teaching me so much about human rights. Second, my current PhD supervisor, Jean Daudelin, who welcomed me back after a long and complicated absence from my studies and whose clarity and pointed remarks made me a consistently better scholar. Thank you for finding the gold in my tsunami-like chapters, for keeping me on track, and for providing assistance that allowed me to take the time I needed. I owe you a debt I will never be able to repay. I am thankful to my two steadfast committee members, Val Percival and Theo McLauchlin, who offered valuable feedback on every stage of this process, patiently tolerated my ever-changing timelines, and directed me to new literature and different angles to my questions. I also want to thank David Long for facilitating my complicated return to NPSIA, and Patricia Lacroix, who was a rock throughout this tumultuous journey. In Colombia, there are far too many people to list, but I am very grateful to all the ex-combatants from the FARC, ELN, and AUC who opened their homes, who drank coffee and “vino colombiano” with me, and who shared their stories, laughter, and tears. Special thanks are due to Cliver, Jorge, and Yina. Thank you to Nancy Amos and Delaney Turner for opening their home to me in Bogotá on my first round of interviews (and for tolerating a surprise visit from the Colombian military at 430am!). I also owe a great deal of thanks to Natalia Herrera and the staff of the two Ministry of Defence safehouses for facilitating iii my access to these sites, which were the jumping off point for this work. I am indebted to my hard-working transcribers, Alejandro Reverend and Jorge Soto (without whom I would no doubt still be transcribing), and to my beloved Spanish teacher, Mauricio Hoyos and his family, who ensured that I was well-versed in Colombian slang and provided a place to rest in the midst of my intense fieldwork. And I do not even know how to thank Alejandro Carlosama, who worked beyond all expectations as my research assistant, fixer, and confidante. Alejo, estoy muy agradecida por lo que has hecho y siempre te tendré a ti y a tu familia en mi corazón. Many wonderful friends kept me sane during this process, especially those who tolerated hearing about my dissertation endlessly: Julie Stonehouse, Maya Dafinova, Gaëlle Rivard Piché, Mia Schöb, and my runner girl gang. I will also always be grateful to my parents for fostering curiosity and a lifelong passion for learning, and for flying across the country many times to help with childcare. My dear children, Jesiah and Calia, showed incredible courage and tenacity throughout this long process and endured a lot of upheaval. And my husband, Jon, whose unfailing loyalty, flexibility, and encouragement—even when I made highly questionable decisions—allowed all of this to happen. Thank you for being a rock when I was the storm. Lastly, I owe my life to someone whose name I do not know. In 2012, a young man anonymously donated his bone marrow so that I could survive an aggressive form of acute myeloid leukemia. Five years later, I resurfaced to finish this degree. I would not be here at all if it were not for him. Thank you, wherever you are. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................ II ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................................... III LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................................................... VIII LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................................................... IX LIST OF ACRONYMS .................................................................................................................................. X CHAPTER ONE: LINKING ORGANIZATIONAL AND INDIVIDUAL FACTORS OF REBEL GROUP COHESION ..... 1 1.1 THE ARGUMENT: FRAMING CONTESTS, REBEL GROUP COHESION, AND GENDER NORMS........................................ 3 1.2 DEFINING GENDER NORMS AND GENDER-BASED ANALYSIS ............................................................................... 4 1.3 STRUCTURE OF THE DISSERTATION ................................................................................................................ 6 CHAPTER TWO: GROUP COHESION, FRAMING PROCESSES, AND GENDER NORMS IN ARMED CONFLICT . 9 2.1 REBEL GROUP COHESION .......................................................................................................................... 10 2.2 DISENGAGEMENT AND DESERTION .............................................................................................................. 13 2.2.1 Types of Commitment ................................................................................................................. 15 2.2.2 Ideology ...................................................................................................................................... 19 2.2.3 Identity ........................................................................................................................................ 21 2.2.4 Networks ..................................................................................................................................... 26 2.2.5 The Costs and Benefits of Membership ....................................................................................... 29 2.3 DDR AND OFFERS OF AMNESTY ................................................................................................................. 33 2.4 FRAME ANALYSIS AND THE ORGANIZATION OF EXPERIENCES ............................................................................ 34 2.5 GENDER NORMS IN WAR AND SECURITY STUDIES .......................................................................................... 38 2.6 FRAMING WOMEN’S PARTICIPATION IN VIOLENCE ......................................................................................... 40 2.6.1 Women’s Roles in Non-State Armed Groups............................................................................... 43 2.6.2 Women and DDR ......................................................................................................................... 49 2.7 CONCLUSION .......................................................................................................................................... 54 CHAPTER THREE: A HISTORY OF (GENDERED) VIOLENCE – BACKGROUND TO THE COLOMBIAN CONFLICT ............................................................................................................................................... 56 3.1 GENDER NORMS IN COLOMBIA..................................................................................................................