Mother of the Nation: Femininity, Modernity, and Class in the Image of Empress Teimei By ©2016 Alison Miller Submitted to the graduate degree program in the History of Art and the Graduate Faculty of the University of Kansas in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. ________________________________ Chairperson Dr. Maki Kaneko ________________________________ Dr. Sherry Fowler ________________________________ Dr. David Cateforis ________________________________ Dr. John Pultz ________________________________ Dr. Akiko Takeyama Date Defended: April 15, 2016 The Dissertation Committee for Alison Miller certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: Mother of the Nation: Femininity, Modernity, and Class in the Image of Empress Teimei ________________________________ Chairperson Dr. Maki Kaneko Date approved: April 15, 2016 ii Abstract This dissertation examines the political significance of the image of the Japanese Empress Teimei (1884-1951) with a focus on issues of gender and class. During the first three decades of the twentieth century, Japanese society underwent significant changes in a short amount of time. After the intense modernizations of the late nineteenth century, the start of the twentieth century witnessed an increase in overseas militarism, turbulent domestic politics, an evolving middle class, and the expansion of roles for women to play outside the home. As such, the early decades of the twentieth century in Japan were a crucial period for the formation of modern ideas about femininity and womanhood. Before, during, and after the rule of her husband Emperor Taishō (1879-1926; r. 1912-1926), Empress Teimei held a highly public role, and was frequently seen in a variety of visual media. Through the investigation of various discursive forms of visual materials featuring Empress Teimei, this dissertation aims to reveal the political significance of Teimei as a role model of middle-class and aristocratic femininity. To this end, this dissertation examines Empress Teimei’s appearance in formal portraiture, representations of Teimei in popular media, and emulations of the Empress by upper class women, as well as tracing changes in her image through time as related to political circumstances and her personal biography. As a public figure, Empress Teimei held great sway over women’s decorum in the first three decades of the twentieth century; she was the first Empress to establish monogamous modern family relations, and was the first modern Empress to mother the successive Emperor. Despite her relevance to the narrative of Japanese imperial history, very few publications, particularly in English, have fully discussed the historical importance of the Empress. Furthermore, the visual representation that was so crucial to the formation of her public persona and image has received scant scholarly consideration. iii This dissertation will fill a void in art history, visual culture, and Japanese studies, opening up future avenues of research on how art and visual culture impacted the politics of gender and power in modern Japan. Specifically, this dissertation will pioneer the study of how the media presentation of the Imperial Family was intrinsically connected to the construction of feminine norms in the 1910s-30s. By bringing the image of Empress Teimei to the center of study, this dissertation contributes to the understanding of issues of gender and power as related to the Imperial Family in early twentieth-century Japan. iv Acknowledgements Like any major project, this dissertation was written with the support of many people, both near and far. Over the course of four years of research, writing, and revising in Lawrence, Kansas City, and Tokyo, I was assisted by a variety of institutions, advisers, colleagues, friends, and family, without which I could have never completed this project. This partial list is a start at recognizing the amazing support network in which I have been fortunate enough to work. My journey of studying the Imperial Family in modern Japan began at the University of Kansas in the stimulating courses of Dr. Maki Kaneko and Dr. Sherry Fowler. It was there that I began working through my interests and ideas in a variety of seminars on thought-provoking topics. The KU Art History Department, and my advisers and larger dissertation committee, including Dr. David Cateforis, Dr. John Pultz, and Dr. Akiko Takeyama from Anthropology, have provided unwavering support throughout my tenure. Maki’s constant editing advice and steadfast commitment to sharpening my arguments was always delivered with encouragement. It is to her that I owe so much of my scholarly development. David and Sherry both have an amazing eye for grammar, editing, and the Chicago Manual of Style. I aspire to write to their level of meticulous detail in my future career. In Kansas I was also fortunate to work at the Spencer Museum of Art where I was able to experiment and delve into the world of Meiji and Taishō prints, and to organize exhibitions on the topic. This experience was invaluable to me in developing my eye, and in seeing these objects in a larger context. In Tokyo I was generously supported by a year-long Fulbright Fellowship, which I spent in residence at the National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Tokyo (Tobunken) under the tutelage of Yamanashi Emiko. Yamanashi-sensei provided wonderful conversation and fruitful research suggestions, and assisted with access at a variety of institutions. Presenting at the Tobunken Research Forum was a great experience and opportunity to gain feedback on my v research, as was the Waseda Modern History Group. The Fulbright Office was a source of continuing assistance and support while in Tokyo. Professor Sato Doshin was kind enough to allow me to sit in on his courses at Tokyo Fine Arts University, where I learned a great deal about modern Japanese art. I conducted research at many archives and libraries while in Tokyo including Waseda University, the National Diet Library, the Tokyo University Multi-media and Socio-information Studies Archive, and the archives of the Imperial Household Agency. The staff at each of these institutions was a great assistance to me and my research. In Tokyo, Ti Ngo was a great friend with whom I could talk about modern Japanese history, visit museums, or seek out good food and drink. The network of friends and researchers that I built during my year in Tokyo will hopefully remain with me for many decades into the future. Back in Kansas, I was able to complete my writing with the assistance of a Hall Center for the Humanities Graduate Summer Research Award. Michiko Ito at the KU Library has provided amazing knowledge and willing assistance at all stages. Presenting my research provided valuable feedback from many colleagues back here in the U.S. including those at the University of California Berkeley Media and Transmission Conference, the Feminist Art History Conference, and the Midwest Conference on Asian Affairs. My classmates at KU were an amazing source of support and advice, there are too many to name here, but I hope to pay you all back with coffee and drinks someday. My friends and family also provided intellectual and emotional support through these long and often solitary years. My gratitude for each of you is overwhelming. And of course, my amazing family, Barb and Tom Miller, Joe and Dylan Bruscato, without your encouragement, love, and support none of this would have happened. Thanks for always being there. vi Table of Contents Introduction ................................................................................................................................1 Previous Scholarship on the Imperial Family ...........................................................................5 Defining Relevant Terms ....................................................................................................... 13 Chapter Outline ..................................................................................................................... 18 Chapter One: The Imperial Family in the Modern Era: Biography and Background................... 21 The Japanese Imperial System ............................................................................................... 22 Shinto, the State, and the Imperial Family in the Modern Era................................................. 37 Biography of Teimei and Taishō ............................................................................................ 44 Conclusions ........................................................................................................................... 53 Chapter Two: Toward the Sacred and the Standard: Formality, Lineage, and Decorum in the Modern Japanese Imperial Portrait ............................................................................................ 55 History of Imperial Portraiture ............................................................................................... 57 Portraits in the Meiji Period ................................................................................................... 62 Portraits in the Taishō Period ................................................................................................. 77 Constructing the Imperial Past: The Meiji Memorial Picture Gallery ..................................... 96 Conclusions ........................................................................................................................