Between Dersim and Dâlahû: Reflections on Kurdish Alevism and the Ahl-i Haqq religion1 Martin van Bruinessen Is Alevism Turkish or Iranian? In the scholarly literature on the religions of the Ahl-i Haqq, Yezidi, and Alevi (Kızılbaş) communities, it has been common to highlight the influence of pre-Islamic Iranian religion (vernacular Zoroastrianism or Mazdaism) on the former two as well as of old Turkic religion (‘shamanism’) on the third, while acknowledging that beneath the surface, the three have a number of important institutions, beliefs, and practices in common that distinguish them from Sunni Islam. The publication of sacred texts which had long been kept cautiously hidden from outsiders appeared to strengthen the division between Iranian- and Turkish-tinged syncretisms, for the oldest and most ‘authentic’ Ahl-i Haqq texts are written in Gurani (and more recent important texts in Persian), the sacred poetry of the Yezidis is in Kurmanji, and their alleged sacred books have come to us in a form of Sorani, whereas the vast corpus of Kızılbaş sacred poetry as well as their only ‘book,’ the Buyruk, are in Turkish.2 Understandably, scholarship on the Ahl-i Haqq and Yezidis has been dominated by scholars with a background in Iranian studies, whereas the study of Alevism long remained the domain of Turkologists. As a result, the Iranian elements in the Ahl-i Haqq and Yezidi religions have received more attention than possible historical connections with Alevism, and in Turkey, the alleged Central Asian Turkish origins of Alevi religious institutions, beliefs, and practices were elevated into an unassailable dogma. There were a few studies that cut through the seemingly neat Iranian-Turkish dichotomy. One of the leading experts on old Turkish religion, Jean-Paul Roux, commented that he recognised numerous Turkish elements in the Gurani texts published by Mokri.3 More importantly, the pioneer of Ahl-i Haqq studies, Vladimir Minorsky, has pointed to the Turcoman Qaraqoyunlu 1 An earlier and shorter version of this paper was published in Mehmet Öz & Fatih Yeşil (eds), Ötekilerin peşinde. Ahmet Yaşar Ocak'a armağan / In pursuit of the Others: Festschrift in honor of Ahmet Yaşar Ocak, Istanbul: Timaş, 2015, pp. 613-30. 2 Mohamed Mokri has published a large corpus of Ahl-i Haqq kalâm in Gurani (with translation and commentary) as well as a major text in Persian by the Ahl-i Haqq reformer Niʿmatullâh Jayhûnâbâdî; earlier, Vladimir Ivanow had published a substantial Persian Ahl-i Haqq text with translation. Philip Kreyenbroek (in co-operation with the Yezidi pîrs Khidr Silêman and Xelîl Jindî) published, translated, and analysed a large corpus of Yezidi sacred poetry (qawl). In Turkey, Abdülbâki Gölpınarlı and others have brought much Alevi- Bektashi material into the public domain, especially hagiographies (menâkıbnâme) and sacred poetry (deyiş, nefes). Hardly any of this material is available in languages other than Turkish. 3 Jean-Paul Roux, ‘Les Fidèles de Vérité et les croyances religieuses des Turcs’, Revue de l’histoire des religions 176(1) (1969), pp. 61-95. Martin van Bruinessen, Between Dersim and Dalahu 1 empire, which in the mid-15th century controlled Azerbaijan, Persian and Arab Iraq, as well as most of Kurdistan, as the cradle of the Ahl-i Haqq religion.4 Minorsky was fascinated by the emergence of new political, cultural, and religious formations in the region, where Turkish and Iranian (as well as Armenian and Aramaic) cultures interacted in the 15th to16th centuries. He was also the first scholar to point to a surviving Turkish-speaking Ahl-i Haqq community in Azerbaijan named Qaraqoyun. The Qaraqoyunlu ruler Jihanshah wrote poems in Turkish as well as in Persian, with expressions in Arabic and references to the Qur’an; although the backbone of his empire was a confederacy of Turcoman tribes, his subjects and followers included various ethnolinguistic groups.5 Half a century later, the Safavid Shah Ismaʿil, who was the major formative influence on Anatolian Alevism, drew upon the same or an even wider range of religious and ethnic resources. All his known poems (which are considered sacred by the Kızılbaş) are in Turkish, but he is also said to have written in Persian as well.6 Turkish scholarship, from Fuad Köprülü onwards, has long tended to prioritise the Central Asian origins of Anatolian Alevism, focusing on the (Central Asian) Yeseviye Sufi order and the role of the Baba – Turcoman religious leaders somehow connected with that order – in shaping Anatolia’s religious syncretism.7 Studies dealing with the rise of the Safavids in Anatolia stressed the Turkish character of the Kızılbaş movement.8 The facts that even now, a considerable proportion of the Anatolian Alevis is not Turkish but Kurdish (including speakers of Zaza as well as Kurmanji), that the considerable Kurdish population of Khurasan descends from Kızılbaş tribes that had followed Shah Ismaʿil from the Erzincan region to Iran, and that therefore, his followers must have included large contingents of Kurds was not perceived or deliberately kept hidden by many scholars.9 Besides the Turkish bias of many 4 V. Minorsky, ‘Jihan-Shah Qara-Qoyunlu and his poetry’, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 16(2) (1954), pp. 271-297. Referring to the Turkish-speaking Ahl-i Haqq community of the district still named Qaraqoyun in Maku, West Azerbaijan, Minorsky suggested that “the beginnings of the Ahl-i Haqq must be connected with the Qara-qoyunlu period (…), [and] the final formation of this religion took place in the region of Shahrazur and Zohab (…); even if the Ahl-i Haqq doctrines were not a kind of state religion under the Qara- qoyunlu, they may have developed in the favourable climate of unorthodoxy, which prevailed under the sultans of the Black Sheep” (p. 276). 5 Minorsky, ‘Jihan-Shah Qara-Qoyunlu’, passim. 6 V. Minorsky, ‘The poetry of Shah Ismaʿil I’, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 10 (1942), p. 1008a. 7 Köprülüzade Mehmed Fuad, Influence du chamanisme Turco-Mongol sur les ordres mystiques musulmans, Istanbul: Institut de turcologie de l’Université de Stamboul, 1929; Fuad Köprülü, Türk edebiyatında ilk mutasavvıflar. 3. basim, Ankara: Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı, 1982 [1919]. 8 Faruk Sümer, Safevi devletinin kuruluşu ve gelişmesinde Anadolu Türklerinin rolü, Ankara: Selçuklu Tarih ve Medeniyeti Enstitüsü, 1976. 9 There is no indication of the large Kurdish component of the Kızılbaş in Sümer’s study. Interestingly, in his history of the Kurdish emirates, Sharafnâma, which was completed in 1597, the former ruler of Bitlis, Sharaf Khân, claims that all Kurds were staunch Sunnis (except the occasional Yezidi tribe). There are good reasons to Martin van Bruinessen, Between Dersim and Dalahu 2 leading scholars – which also had an impact on the work of their European colleagues –, there were also political constraints in Turkey that made it difficult to discuss the Kurdish dimension of Alevism. The official denial of Kurdish ethnicity and the endorsement of historiographies ‘proving’ that the tribes concerned were of Central Asian origin and of Turkish ethnicity continued well into the 1990s. The very concept of Kurdish Alevism was a contested one, and as a result of a long period of official suppression and ideological misrepresentation, it could no longer be observed as a living tradition. Like the Sufi orders, Alevi ritual had been formally banned since 1925 (although many village communities, especially the Turkish-speaking ones, continued to practice it secretly). Dersim, the geographical centre of Kurdish Alevism, had moreover been subjected to a genocidal pacification campaign in 1937-38, followed by massive deportations.10 Accounts by various officials serving in the region, who invariably insisted on the Turkish character of the population and their religion, were long the only available representations of the religion of Dersim. This Turko-centric definition of Alevism was challenged from the 1980s onwards by the emerging Kurdish movement. Kurdish intellectuals of Alevi background insisted on the differences between Turkish and Kurdish Alevism, which were sometimes framed as pro-state Bektashi versus oppositional Kızılbaş Alevism. They have identified and emphasised elements in Kurdish Alevism that appeared to connect it with Iranian religions such as Zoroastrianism and, more specifically, with Yezidi and Ahl-i Haqq traditions. Some activists countered the thesis of ‘shamanist’ origins with the equally doctrinal insistence on origins in Zoroastrianism and Mazdaeism.11 Others attempted to recover the pre-1937 religious tradition through systematically interviewing surviving knowledgeable persons.12 The 1990s and 2000s were a period of intensive debate on the religious and ethnic identity of the Kurdish Alevis.13 consider this to be an apologetic statement, intended to convince the Ottomans of the Kurds’ trustworthiness in their confrontation with the Safavids. 10 Martin van Bruinessen, ‘Genocide in Kurdistan? The suppression of the Dersim rebellion in Turkey (1937-38) and the chemical war against the Iraqi Kurds (1988)’, in: George J. Andreopoulos (ed.), Conceptual and historical dimensions of genocide, University of Pennsylvania Press, 1994, pp. 141-170. 11 Cemşid Bender, Kürt uygarlığında Alevilik, Istanbul: Kaynak, 1991; Ethem Xemgin, Aleviliğin kökenindeki Mazda inancı ve Zerdüst öğretisi, Istanbul: Berfin, 1995. 12 Journals such as Berhem (published in Sweden in 1988-1993), Ware (Germany, 1992-2003), and Munzur (Ankara, since 2000) have sparked an interest in documenting the oral traditions of the Kurdish Alevis, and several of the contributing authors were explicitly interested in the similarities between the recorded narratives and those of Iranian origin. Since 1999, the publishing house Kalan in Ankara has published numerous books on Dersim, many of them based on interviews with old men and women known to be repositories of oral tradition. Oral history interviews carried out by activists and scholars such as Metin and Kemal Kahraman, Bilal and Gürdal Aksoy, Cemal Taş, Erdal Gezik, Mesut Özcan, and Hüseyin Çakmak have resulted in an impressive body of new material on Dersim traditions before 1937.