Value in the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Souvenir Art Sector Brendan Mahoney Doctorate of Philosophy University of Western Sydney 2011 © Brendan Mahoney, 2011 Abstract The Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander souvenir art sector with its wide range of products has a long and significant history and is economically important within the industry. However, the full scope of this significance has not been adequately recognised in the academic literature. While the sector’s substantial economic contribution is acknowledged in some policy documents, these considerations are generally brief, with little analysis of any value the sector might generate in the social and cultural spheres. This neglect of souvenir art is driven by two key factors: its low status in the social hierarchy of the arts (Bourdieu, 1984), and the difficulty of finding analytical tools capable of assessing the complexities of the sector without falling into assumptions about the cultural value and ‘authenticity’ of souvenir art. In an attempt to redress this, the thesis develops both a theoretical framework that aims to adequately capture the social, cultural and economic significance of the sector, and analytical tools that cover the broad set of discourses that comprise the subject. As such, I have adapted the insights of modern and critical political economy theories to analyse the distribution of economic capital, and broadened these theories to encompass Pierre Bourdieu’s (1984) concepts of social and cultural capital. This combination of theories forms a broad-ranging theoretical framework that accommodates economic capital and the qualitative discursive constructions that inform amounts of social and cultural capital within the same system. I use this framework to illustrate the social, cultural and economic value of the Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander souvenir art sector and its products. These values are traced through an analysis of seven examples of organisations active in the sector. The thesis undertakes a close analysis of aspects of the souvenir art sector that have not been adequately represented in the literature, including the diversity of organisations and broad spectrum of products. The thesis makes an argument for the legitimacy of the sector while addressing the limitations of discourses of authenticity and inauthenticity. I analyse the political economy of the sector to reveal the interaction between state policies and funding statements and the example organisations, illustrating the substantial social, cultural and economic capital that the sector generates. Acknowledgements I would like to thank my supervisors Dr Jacqueline Millner and Dr James Arvanitakis for their support, encouragement, editing, and faith that have seen me through the doctoral process. Thanks particularly for the range of expertise that you have both contributed to my education and the valuable experiences that you have made possible. A note of acknowledgement for the editing services of Vanessa Cavasinni from Word For Word Editorial Services. I would also like to acknowledge the life-long support of my parents. From teaching me how to live, the importance of education, to letting me live at home for so long and taking pictures of their belongings. A grateful thank you to all my friends for their support. Cheers. And to my partner, thanks for your advice and expertise with grammar and syntax, your support and encouragement. Statement of Authentication The work presented in this thesis is, to the best of my knowledge and belief, original except as acknowledged in the text. I hereby declare that I have not submitted this material, either in full or in part, for a degree at this or any other institution. ................................................................................... Brendan Mahoney Contents Chapter 1: Introduction 1 1.1 Prelude – Origins of This Thesis 1 1.2 Thesis Aims 5 1.3 Key Terms and Definitions 7 1.3.1 Titles: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander and Indigenous 8 1.3.2 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Art 10 1.3.3 Souvenir Art 13 1.3.4 The Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Industry 16 1.3.5 The Souvenir Art Sector of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Art Industry 18 1.4 Methods and Methodology 20 1.5 Thesis Structure 25 Chapter 2: Theoretical Framework: Bourdieu, Art and Value 28 2.1 Bourdieu and Sociology 30 2.1.1 Pierre Bourdieu’s Concept of Value 30 2.1.2 Bourdieu’s Engagement with Value in Art and Economics 35 2.1.3 Bourdieu’s Concepts in Other Studies 41 2.1.4 Reinterpretations, Revisions and Criticisms of Bourdieu’s Concepts 44 2.2 Art History, Theory and Criticism 51 2.2.1 The Modernist Aesthetic 52 i 2.2.2 The Cultural Turn and the Contemporary Era 57 2.2.3 The Aesthetic and Cultural Discourses of Craft 63 2.2.4 Kitsch, Repetition and Postmodern Sensibilities 67 Chapter 3: Theoretical Framework: Policy, Economics, Political Economy and Value 73 3.1 The Sector and Industry: Policy Discourses and the Construction of Value 74 3.1.1 Policy Discourses: Arts and Culture and Industry 76 3.1.2 Social and Cultural Value and Evaluation in Policy 82 3.2 Economic and Extra-Economic Valuing 88 3.2.1 Economics, Political Economy and Art 89 3.2.2 Extra-Economic Valuing 95 3.2.3 Critical Modern Political Economy, Bourdieu and Value 99 3.3 Theoretical Framework: Conclusion 103 Chapter 4: An Outline of Industry Policy and the Division of the Sectors 106 4.1 Indigenous Policy: The Creation of Arts Production as an Industry 110 4.2 Arts and Cultural Policy Initiatives, Outcomes and Extra-Economic Values 117 ii 4.3 Cultural Industries Policy, the Benefits of Employment and the Economy 129 4.4 Conclusion: Assumptions, Hidden Divisions and the Separation of the Sectors 145 Chapter 5: Examples of the Structures and Values from an Unknown Sector: Art Centres 159 5.1 Art Centres 162 5.2 Injalak Arts and Crafts 163 5.3 Maruku Arts and Crafts 179 5.4 Warlukurlangu Artists’ Aboriginal Corporation 197 Chapter 6: Examples from an Unknown Sector: Commercial Organisations 206 6.1 Smaller Scale Organisations 207 6.2 Larger Scale Organisations 226 6.3 Example Organisations: Conclusion 247 Chapter 7: Conclusion 249 7.1 The Value of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Souvenir Art Sector and Products 249 iii 7.2 Recommendations 256 7.2.1 Recommendation 1 (A): A Consultative Approach to the Discursive Constructions 256 7.2.2 Recommendation 1 (B): A Broader Definition 258 7.2.3 Recommendation 2 (A): Market Research 259 7.2.4 Recommendation 2 (B): Industry Promotion: Labelling and Accreditation 260 7.2.5 Recommendation 3 (A): Measuring What Counts - Beyond the Economic 262 7.2.6 Recommendation 3 (B): Voluntary Evaluation Surveys 263 7.2.7 Recommendation 3 (C): Sharing Knowledge 265 7.2.8 Recommendation 4 (A): State and Federal Policy and Evaluations 267 7.2.9 Recommendation 4 (B): Policy Objectives and Funding 267 7.3 Further Research 269 7.3.1 Research into the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Arts Industry 270 7.3.2 Bourdieu and Critical Modern Political Economy 272 7.3.3 Other Souvenir Arts and Indigenous Arts Industries 273 7.4 Epilogue – Reflections on Personal Souvenirs and this Thesis 275 References: 281 iv Plate References: 298 Appendix A: Questionnaire - The Political Economy of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Art Industry 302 Appendix B: Map of the Locations of the Seven Example Organisations 308 List of Images Plate 1: Brendan Mahoney Small Returning Boomerang on Bookshelf [Photograph] (2010) 1 Plate 2: Emily Kame Kngwarreye Ntange Dreaming [Synthetic polymer paint on canvas] (1989) 56 Plate 3: Priscilla Badari Namarrkon - Lightning Man [Ochres on Archers Paper] (Undated) from Injalak 56 Plate 4: Terry Johnstone Nesting Lyrebird [Canvas Screen-print] (Undated) from the Medium Organisation 56 Plate 5: Injalak’s base in Gunbalanya marked in Purple, Maruku’s base in Mutitjulu marked in Yellow and Warluklurlangu’s base in Yuendumu marked in Red [Map] (2010) 164 Plate 6: Djawida Nadjongorle Untitled [Ochres on Bark] (Undated) as featured on the Injalak Website 167 Plate 7: Owen Naborhlborhl, Mimi Spirit [Ochres on Arches Paper] (Undated) from Injalak 169 Plate 8: A Woven Basket from Injalak [Pandanus Fibre] (Undated) 172 Plate 9: Gabriel Maralngurra Untitled [Print] (Undated) from Injalak 174 v Plate 10: Modified Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australia Map with an Insert of the Pitjantjatjara, Yankunytjatjara and Ngaanyatjara lands [Map] (2010) 179 Plate 11: Carved Animal Figures from Maruku [River Red Gum/Mulga Wood] (Undated) 181 Plate 12: Carved Bowls with Burnt-Incising designs from Maruku [River Red Gum/Mulga Wood] (Undated) 184 Plate 13: Shields, Chisels and Clubs, Music Sticks, and Boomerangs from Maruku [Red River Gum/Mulga Wood] (Undated) 186 Plate 14: Shorty Jangala Robertson Untitled Design on Mug with Packaging [Photograph – Brendan Mahoney] (2011) 200 Plate 15: Nora Napaljarri Andy Paraja [Photograph – Brendan Mahoney] (2011) 200 Plate 16: Elizabeth Napangardi Lechleitner Boomerang [Photograph – Brendan Mahoney] (2011) 200 Plate 17: The Independent Operator shown in Orange and the Small Organisation shown just above in Blue [Map] (2010) 208 Plate 18: Tilau Nangala Women’s Ceremony [Acrylic on Belgian Linen] (Undated) from the Small Organisation 212 Plate 19: Limited Edition Print #37 [Print] (Undated) from the Small Organisation 214 Plate 20: Independent Operator When Goanna and Snake First Met [Acrylic on Canvas] (Undated) 214 vi Plate 21: Boomerangs (16 inch) [Three-Layered