THE TALE OF “TWO VOICES:” AN ORAL HISTORY OF WOMEN COMMUNICATORS FROM MISSISSIPPI FREEDOM SUMMER 1964 AND A NEW BLACK FEMINIST CONCEPT ____________________________________________ A Dissertation presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School at the University of Missouri-Columbia ________________________________________________________ In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy ____________________________________________ by BRENDA JOYCE EDGERTON-WEBSTER Dr. Earnest L. Perry Jr., Dissertation Supervisor MAY 2007 The undersigned, appointed by the dean of the Graduate School, have examined the dissertation entitled: THE TALE OF “TWO VOICES:” AN ORAL HISTORY OF WOMEN COMMUNICATORS FROM MISSISSIPPI FREEDOM SUMMER 1964 AND A NEW BLACK FEMINIST CONCEPT presented by Brenda Joyce Edgerton-Webster, a candidate for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, and hereby certify that, in their opinion, it is worthy of acceptance. Dr. Earnest L. Perry, Jr. Dr. C. Zoe Smith Dr. Carol Anderson Dr. Ibitola Pearce Dr. Bonnie Brennen Without you, dear Lord, I never would have had the strength, inclination, skill, or fortune to pursue this lofty task; I thank you for your steadfast and graceful covering in completing this dissertation. Of greatest importance, my entire family has my eternal gratitude; especially my children Lauren, Brandon, and Alexander – for whom I do this work. Special acknowledgements to Lauren who assisted with the audio and video recording of the oral interviews and often proved herself key to keeping our home life sound; to my fiancé Ernest Evans, Jr. who also assisted with recording interviews and has supported me in every way possible from beginning to end; to my late uncle, Reverend Calvin E. Edgerton, who continuously prayed and loved me up in order to accomplish this great task, to my late father Clarence N. Edgerton whose first expectation of me finally has come to fruition, and to my mother Patricia M. Franks, Esq. who graciously committed acts of selfless sacrifice in proportions greater than what most people will ever know in their lifetime – you are a rare jewel. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The work of this doctoral committee is innumerable and impossible to describe with mere words. Foremost, I give sincerest thanks to my chair Dr. Earnest L. Perry, Jr. whose effort and support surpasses the traditional responsibilities of a dissertation supervisor – his commitment to “pass on” the legacy of excellence is gracious and humbling to my spirit. Dr. Carol Anderson’s discipline and depth of knowledge of Civil Rights History provided the training rod to make this work one worthy of scholarly notice. Dr. Ibitola Pearce’s understanding of Black Feminist theory has been invaluable and her spirit has supported me throughout my graduate studies. The expertise of Drs. C. Zoe Smith and Bonnie Brennen in media, culture, and oral histories helped shape this discussion of women’s contributions to journalism history while they themselves prove excellent models of women’s scholarship in media studies. Among others who have continuously supported my graduate work, I thank Dean Dean Mills and Assistant Dean Esther Thorson for their financial support and networking contacts. Noted women’s historian Kay Mills for her guidance and wonderful contacts. Also, to Dr. Betty Winfield, Dr. Julius Thompson, Dr. Clenora Hudson-Weems, Dr. Berkley Hudson, Amy Lenk, Susan Schuermann, Cindy Huffendorf, Michael Adkins, Porter Roberts, and my graduate colleagues at the University of Missouri-Columbia ii School of Journalism – thank you. Also, thank you to the administration and faculty at Mississippi State University for their support and forbearance during the final stages of this considerable work. To the Freedom Summer veterans – the late Victoria Gray Adams, Unita Blackwell, Dr. L.C. Dorsey, Raylawni Branch, Judy Richardson, Sheila Michaels, Terri Shaw, Zoya Zemen, Dr. Peter Orris, Lawrence Guyot, Dr. Robert Moses and Fannie Lou Hamer Foundation Coordinator Patricia Thompson - who willingly shared their time, homes, meals and stories with me – I am honored by your lives. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS............................................................................................ ii ABSTRACT..................................................................................................................vii INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................1 Why Mississippi – A Hotbed of the South? Why Examine Women’s Work in the Civil Rights Movement? Chapter 1. THE LEGACY OF WOMEN’S LABOR EXPRESSED IN EVERY ERA OF THE BLACK PRESS AND CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT ..............................21 The Early Black Press Fights for Freedom and Leads the Way Of Those Who Came Before Us The Black Press Moves Folk Up North and Through the War Years The Black Press of Mississippi Tells the Stories No One Else Will The Mainstream Press Finally Takes Notice of the Black Press Women’s Place in the Modern Civil Rights Movement The “Face of Female Leadership SNCC, Freedom Summer 1964, and Black Women SNCC – The Vehicle to Drive Black Women’s Activism 2. BLACK FEMINISM SHAPES THE MODERN CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT .....................................................................................69 19th Century First-Wave Black Feminists Bridging First-Wave Black Feminists and Early 20th Century Women’s Clubs 20th Century Civil Rights Movement Creates a Second-Wave of Black Feminists Late 20th Century – Defining Black Feminist Thought 3. USING ORAL HISTORIES TO ARTICULATE THE “VOICES” OF FREEDOM WOMEN ..................................................................................87 Ways of “Doing Oral Histories” Oral Histories of Civil Rights Workers and Freedom Summer Women Pictures Help Tell a Thousand Words iv Using Oral Histories to Study African Americans and African American Women 4. WHAT WAS ‘WOMEN’S WORK’ IN FREEDOM SUMMER?.....................102 5. GETTING THE WORD OUT IN 1964 FREEDOM SUMMER .......................132 6. FREEDOM SUMMER WOMEN: ACTIVISTS OR COMMUNICATORS?....157 Implications of this Study to Research and Theory Reflections of the Study and Future Research Goals APPENDIX A. STATE MAP OF MISSISSIPPI 1964 ..............................................................180 B. STUDENT VOICE, JUNE 2, 1964 – FRONT PAGE ........................................181 C. LOCAL NEWSLETTER SIMILAR TO STUDENT VOICE.............................182 D. SNCC WATS DIGEST BULLETIN……..……………………………………...183 E. SNCC COMMUNICATION PHONE/CHECK-IN-PROCEDURE & SECURITY HANDBOOK……………………………………………………………...184-186 F. HERBERT RANDALL PICTURE OF SEVERELY BEATEN RABBI ...........187 G. VICTORIA JACKSON ADAMS U.S. SENATE POSTER ..............................188 H. WOMEN WORKERS IN FREEDOM SUMMER 1964...................................189 I. ROUTE MAP OF 1961 FREEDOM RIDES…………..……………………….190 J. VICTORIA JACKSON ADAMS PHOTOGRAPH…….………………….…..191 K. UNITA BLACKWELL PHOTOGRAPH…………….......…………………….192 L. DR. L.C. DORSEY PHOTOGRAPH…...………………………..……………193 M. JUDY RICHARDSON PHOTOGRAPH……………………………………...194 N. SHEILA MICHAELS PHOTOGRAPH………………………………..………195 O. TERRI SHAW PHOTOGRAPH……………………………………….………196 P. RAYLAWNI BRANCH PHOTOGRAPH.………………………………….…197 v Q. MAP OF MIDDLE PASSAGE SLAVE TRADE ROUTES…………………...198 BIBLIOGRAPHY……………………………………………………….……………...199 VITA...........................................................................................................................217 vi THE TALE OF “TWO VOICES:” AN ORAL HISTORY OF WOMEN COMMUNICATORS FROM MISSISSIPPI FREEDOM SUMMER 1964 AND A NEW BLACK FEMINIST CONCEPT Brenda Joyce Edgerton-Webster Dr. Earnest L. Perry Jr., Dissertation Supervisor ABSTRACT This study developed a new concept of Black Feminist thought and employs it to examine the intersection of press and communication practices among women involved in Mississippi Freedom Summer 1964. The study draws on oral histories of women participants in this project as a way to contribute these omitted “voices” to the canon of journalism, civil rights, and women’s history. In analyzing these stories, this study discovered generational differences among the women in terms of Freedom Summer’s influence on their worldviews and subsequent vocations. Although all of the study’s participants performed journalistic tasks, the older women of this group continued their lives as social activists and the younger women became professional communicators. The rationale for this phenomena helps explain, in part, the omission of women from the historical “image” of African American civil rights leaders. vii INTRODUCTION The old adage "a woman's work is never done" could be changed to "a woman's work is often overlooked." This sentiment certainly remains the case in terms of the canonical treatment of African American1 female leadership and their contributions to journalism, civil, and women’s rights history.2 Every meaningful activity requires an effective and powerful tool to help accomplish the task. Just as thinking requires not only brainpower, but also skills of critical analysis; so the successful activities of the Modern Civil Rights Movement3 depended on an essential and mighty tool - The Media, specifically the Black Press. 4 A comprehensive discussion of the role of the media5 in general, and the Black Press in particular, as an instrument of success during the Modern Civil Rights Movement remains sorely lacking from the historical canon of this era. For decades, black women 1 In