Children’s online activities, risks and safety A literature review by the UKCCIS Evidence Group Professor Sonia Livingstone ▪ LSE Professor Julia Davidson ▪ Middlesex University Dr Joanne Bryce ▪ University of Central Lancashire With Saqba Batool, Ciaran Haughton and Anulekha Nandi October 2017 LSE Consulting Acknowledgements London School of Economics and Political Science This report draws on the expertise of the Houghton Street London UKCCIS Evidence Group. We thank WC2A 2AE them for their input and feedback, and Tel: +44 (0)20 7955 7128 George Maier (LSE) and Emily Keaney Fax: +44 (0)20 7955 7980 Email: [email protected] (Ofcom) for working with us on the Web: lse.ac.uk/consulting figures and tables included. Contents 1. Executive summary ............................................................................................................................ 1 2. Children’s use of the internet ......................................................................................................... 5 2.1 Main findings and trends over time ...................................................................................................... 5 2.2 Demographic factors – age, gender, socioeconomic status .................................................................. 8 2.3 Summary .............................................................................................................................................. 11 3. Children’s online activities ........................................................................................................... 12 3.1 Main findings and trends over time .................................................................................................... 12 3.2 Online opportunities ........................................................................................................................... 13 3.3 Risky opportunities .............................................................................................................................. 15 3.4 Summary .............................................................................................................................................. 18 4. Risk of harm to children online .................................................................................................. 20 4.1 Understanding risk and harm .............................................................................................................. 20 4.2 How many children report online risk? ............................................................................................... 20 4.3 What do children find upsetting online? ............................................................................................. 21 4.4 Classifying and measuring risk of harm ............................................................................................... 25 4.5 Summary .............................................................................................................................................. 27 5. Bullying, aggression and hate...................................................................................................... 28 5.1 Prevalence ........................................................................................................................................... 28 5.2 Risk factors .......................................................................................................................................... 29 5.3 Experiences and impacts ..................................................................................................................... 29 5.4 Children’s concerns and responses to cyberbullying .......................................................................... 30 5.5 Online hate .......................................................................................................................................... 31 5.6 Interventions ....................................................................................................................................... 32 5.7 Current knowledge gaps ...................................................................................................................... 33 5.8 Summary .............................................................................................................................................. 33 6. Sexting and sexual harassment .................................................................................................. 35 6.1 Sexting ................................................................................................................................................. 35 6.2 Online sexual harassment ................................................................................................................... 39 6.3 Current knowledge gaps ...................................................................................................................... 40 6.4 Summary .............................................................................................................................................. 41 7. Pornography ..................................................................................................................................... 42 7.1 Definition and prevalence rates .......................................................................................................... 42 7.2 Intentional vs. unintentional exposure ............................................................................................... 44 7.3 Attitudes to online pornography ......................................................................................................... 44 7.4 Risk and harm ...................................................................................................................................... 45 7.5 Children’s concerns ............................................................................................................................. 45 7.6 Interventions ....................................................................................................................................... 46 7.7 Summary and evidence gaps ............................................................................................................... 46 8. Grooming, child sexual abuse and exploitation .................................................................... 47 8.1 Prevalence and definition of grooming and child sexual exploitation ................................................ 47 8.2 The grooming process ......................................................................................................................... 49 8.3 The impact on children and seeking support ...................................................................................... 50 8.4 Indecent images of children ................................................................................................................ 52 8.5 Summary .............................................................................................................................................. 53 9. Online radicalisation ...................................................................................................................... 54 9.1 Prevalence ........................................................................................................................................... 54 9.2 The role of the internet and social media ........................................................................................... 54 9.3 Characteristics of vulnerable young people and recruiters ................................................................ 55 9.4 Interventions ....................................................................................................................................... 56 9.5 Summary .............................................................................................................................................. 57 10. Hacking ............................................................................................................................................ 58 10.1 Definition of hacking............................................................................................................................ 58 10.2 Prevalence ........................................................................................................................................... 58 10.3 Key characteristics, behaviours and motivations ................................................................................ 58 10.4 Gaming as a pathway to illegal activity ............................................................................................... 60 10.5 Prevention and intervention ............................................................................................................... 60 10.6 Summary .............................................................................................................................................. 61 11. Vulnerability, victimhood and resilience ............................................................................ 62 11.1 Who is vulnerable online? ................................................................................................................... 62 11.2 Typologies ...........................................................................................................................................