YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK & THE WINTER USE DEBATE: COMMUNITY RESILIENCE AND TOURISM IMPACTS IN THE GATEWAY COMMUNITY OF WEST YELLOWSTONE, MT by Carl Alan Hamming A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Earth Sciences MONTANA STATE UNIVERSITY Bozeman, Montana April, 2016 ©COPYRIGHT by Carl Alan Hamming 2016 All Rights Reserved ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to thank my advisor, Dr. Julia Haggerty, for her limitless help and extraordinary guidance. I also wish to express my deep appreciation for my committee members, Dr. Ray Rasker and Dr. Bill Wyckoff, for their insight and assistance. This thesis would not have been possible without the contributions of many of the fine residents of West Yellowstone, the National Park Service, Montana State University Library, University of Montana’s Institute for Tourism and Recreation Research, and the Institute on Ecosystems. Finally, and most importantly, I would like to thank my parents, Bruce and Mary, for all of their support and love throughout my life. I also want to thank my older brother, Brian, for all the lessons he taught me both directly and indirectly. Life is special. I will never forget you. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. INTRODUCTION & LITERATURE REVIEW .....................................................1 Introduction ..............................................................................................................1 Organization .............................................................................................................4 Literature Review.....................................................................................................5 Community Theory ......................................................................................5 Community Resilience .................................................................................6 Evaluating Community Resilience ..............................................................9 Evolution of Economic Theory of the American West .............................11 Resource Dependent Communities and the Economic Base Model ...............................................................................14 The Greater Yellowstone Area ..................................................................16 Gateway Communities ...............................................................................17 Tourism: The Devil’s Bargain and Resortification ....................................19 Residents’ Perception of Tourism Development .......................................22 Site Description & History: West Yellowstone, Montana .........................23 Managing Yellowstone National Park .......................................................26 NPS Winter Use Management ...................................................................28 The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) ......................................29 Conclusion .................................................................................................33 2. COMMUNITY RESILIENCE IN A TOURIST GATEWAY TOWN ............................................................................35 Contribution of Authors and Co-Authors ..............................................................35 Manuscript Information Page ................................................................................36 Abstract ..................................................................................................................37 Introduction ............................................................................................................38 Purpose .......................................................................................................40 Literature Review...................................................................................................41 Community Resilience ...............................................................................41 Tourism Economies: Economic Benefits and Community Costs ................................................................................43 Local Perceptions of Tourism ....................................................................46 Methods..................................................................................................................48 Community Resilience ...............................................................................48 iv TABLE OF CONTENTS – CONTINUED Resortification ............................................................................................50 Site Description: West Yellowstone, Montana ..........................................53 Snowmobiling History in YNP ..................................................................57 Discussion ..............................................................................................................60 Resortification ............................................................................................61 Snowmobiling in Yellowstone National Park: Before and After Winter Use Management ...................................61 Seasonality of West Yellowstone’s Economy ...............................63 Absentee Ownership and Impact on Community Resilience ..............................................................66 Socioeconomic Impacts since the Implementation of Snowmobiling Restrictions........................................................68 Community Resilience ...............................................................................70 Impact ............................................................................................70 Equity .............................................................................................74 Development of Community Resources ........................................76 Current Challenges & Future Opportunities ..............................................77 Conclusion .............................................................................................................80 References Cited ....................................................................................................82 3. CONCLUSIONS, LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH ..........................................................................................91 REFERENCES CITED ..........................................................................................96 APPENDICES .....................................................................................................111 APPENDIX A: Timeline of Winter Use in Yellowstone National Park ............................................112 APPENDIX B: Legal History of Winter Use Management In Yellowstone National Park ........................................114 APPENDIX C: Exploratory Post Facto Analysis of Visitation and Socioeconomic Impacts Projected in the 2004 Temporary Winter Use Plan for YNP ............................137 APPENDIX D: Interview Guide ..............................................................164 v LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Overview of Quantitative Datasets Utilized ....................................................52 vi LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Nine Dimensions of Community Resilience....................................................10 2. Total YNP Winter Visitation and Percentage Through West Yellowstone ............................................................................................32 3. Map of Greater Yellowstone Area ...................................................................55 4. Total YNP Winter Visitation and Percentage Through West Yellowstone (Black & White) ................................................................60 5. Winter Resort Tax Collections & Percent of Annual Resort Tax Collections ........................................................................62 6. Winter and Summer Visitation at West Entrance with Percent of Annual Visitation from Winter .......................................................66 7. Indexed: West Yellowstone Annual Revenue and Visitation through West Gate...........................................................................73 8. West Entrance: Establishments and Employment ...........................................74 9. West Entrance: Total Summer Visitation and Percentage of Visitors via Bus .........................................................................79 vii ABSTRACT This study explores the socioeconomic impacts of the National Park Service’s winter use management of Yellowstone National Park on the gateway community of West Yellowstone, Montana. As a highly specialized, tourism-dependent gateway community, the National Park Service’s management decisions that affect park visitation also impact the economic viability of West Yellowstone. Previously, scholars have documented the challenges presented by tourism economies and ‘resortification’ in small communities, the process of a small town being converted into a resort destination with numerous vacation properties, increasing absentee business ownership, a highly seasonal economy and escalating real estate prices. Less is known about how the challenges of resortification and industrial tourism interact with the dimensions of community resilience within a gateway community. Community resilience exists as a mechanism for rural and remote communities to identify vulnerabilities, buffer change, develop resources and promote local progress during periods of uncertainty and stress. This paper explores how the snowmobiling restrictions