Durham E-Theses Coral reef sh and the aquarium trade: ecological impacts and socio-cultural inuences in southern Sri Lanka HOWARD, JAMES,ALEXANDER How to cite: HOWARD, JAMES,ALEXANDER (2012) Coral reef sh and the aquarium trade: ecological impacts and socio-cultural inuences in southern Sri Lanka, Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/6947/ Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details. Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk 2 Abstract Coral reef fish and the aquarium trade: ecological impacts and socio-cultural influences in southern Sri Lanka James Alexander Edward Howard The chronic degradation of coral reefs globally and its negative impact on coastal communities such as those in southern Sri Lanka dependent on the marine ornamental trade for their livelihood forms the focus of this study. Attempts to improve the conservation status of Sri Lanka's coral reefs and their associated fauna have failed because they omit to address the social circumstances of local people. Such social- ecological systems require an integrated approach, which provides holistic reasons for the degradation of natural ecosystems and livelihoods of coastal people. The aim of this study was therefore to ascertain the current sustainability of the marine ornamental trade in southern Sri Lanka through an interdisciplinary study employing a participatory bottom-up approach, and derive from findings alternative pathways to restore and maintain the health of the reef and thus provide better livelihoods for the fishing communities. Findings confirm both the fragile state of nearshore coral reefs, their fish populations and the precarious nature of local communities’ livelihoods. Historical and recent environmental and anthropogenic impacts reduced resilience in all trade sectors and current fishing practices and the unjust supply chain compound these effects. Therefore, a holistic co-management framework is recommended that recognises local ecological knowledge and involves fishing communities as citizen scientists to improve monitoring and also provides communication channels to facilitate interaction within and across all groups of the ornamental trade. In this way, all actors are involved in making decisions and taking responsibility for the management of the supply chain at their particular level. This single, coherent framework would thus employ diverse groups and ways of doing as a resilience strategy to halt the degradation and reinvigorate the reef for more sustainable utilisation whilst simultaneously developing highly acceptable alternative income generating livelihoods such as the community- based aquaculture experiment undertaken during this study. Coral reef fish and the aquarium trade: ecological impacts and socio-cultural influences in southern Sri Lanka James A. E. Howard Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Anthropology and School of Biological & Biomedical Sciences Durham University September 2012 Table of Contents List of Figures..............................................................................................................ix List of Tables.............................................................................................................xiii List of Acronyms......................................................................................................xvii Declaration..................................................................................................................xx Acknowledgements....................................................................................................xxi Dedication................................................................................................................xxiv Chapter 1: - Introduction...........................................................................................1 1.1 Preface................................................................................................................1 1.2 Major themes of the thesis.................................................................................2 1.3 Rationale and unique focus of the thesis............................................................5 1.4 Objectives of the study.......................................................................................7 1.5 Overview of the thesis........................................................................................9 Chapter 2: - Literature Review................................................................................13 2.1 Introduction......................................................................................................13 2.1.1 Coral structure and physiology.................................................................13 2.1.2 Human interactions with coral reefs.........................................................14 2.2 Status of coral reefs worldwide........................................................................16 2.3 Status of reefs in Sri Lanka..............................................................................17 2.3.1 Reef fisheries............................................................................................18 2.3.2 Ornamental fishery in Sri Lanka..............................................................18 2.4 Threats to coral reefs........................................................................................19 2.4.1 Environmental threats...............................................................................19 2.4.2 Anthropogenic threats...............................................................................20 2.5 Threats in Sri Lanka.........................................................................................21 2.6 Impacts on coral reefs......................................................................................21 2.6.1 Overfishing...............................................................................................21 2.6.2 Trophic cascades.......................................................................................22 2.6.3 Ornamental trade......................................................................................23 2.6.4 Coral bleaching.........................................................................................24 2.7 Impacts on Sri Lankan reefs.............................................................................25 i 2.7.1 Overfishing on Sri Lankan reefs...............................................................26 2.8 Alternating stable states of coral reefs.............................................................26 2.9 Coral reef management....................................................................................27 2.10 Management of Sri Lankan reefs...................................................................28 2.11 Who is to blame for the state of the commons?.............................................29 2.12 Past and current management failures............................................................30 2.13 Theoretical framework...................................................................................33 2.13.1 Historical ecology...................................................................................33 2.13.2 Panarchy.................................................................................................35 2.13.2.1 Resilience........................................................................................37 2.13.2.2 Forms of resilience.........................................................................39 2.13.2.3 Ways to foster resilience.................................................................40 2.13.2.4 Managing resilience........................................................................41 2.13.2.5 Resilience in coral reef systems......................................................41 2.14 Local knowledge............................................................................................42 2.14.1 Local ecological knowledge among tropical reef fishers.......................45 2.14.2 Traditional forms of management..........................................................47 2.15 Political ecology.............................................................................................48 2.16 Fisheries governance......................................................................................50 2.16.1 Hierarchical governance.........................................................................50 2.16.2 Market-based governance.......................................................................50 2.16.3 Participatory governance........................................................................51 2.17 Conclusion......................................................................................................54