<p> (13) Nouns and their Countability (The Relationship to Definiteness and Number; The Semantico-Grammatical Nature of Countability and the Degree of Grammaticalisation in English and Czech; Nouns Uncountable in Particular Meanings; Countability with Abstract Nouns; Lexical Means of Singularisation) </p><p>(13.1) Countability as a Grammatical Category</p><p>[see (8.2.1)]</p><p>(13.2) Countable Nouns</p><p>- some countable nouns used with null article in some special situations (1) particular syntactic positions - of-phrase: the type of sentence, the role of subject, this kind of tree, etc. (2) particular phrasal use - all / enough + SG: she’s all woman, there’s not enough table for everyone to sit at, etc. - also: in person, step by step, go by train, etc. (3) idiosyncratic items - the semantic meaning of the article (both definite and indefinite) does not fit into some contexts: it was morning x it was a sunny morning; he was friend to us, etc.</p><p>(13.3) Countable / Uncountable Nouns</p><p>(1) material: uncountable x product of the material: countable - chocolate [čokoláda] x chocolates [čokoládové bonbony], stone [kamení] x precious stones [drahé kameny], oak [dubovina] x oaks [duby], etc. (2) abstraction: uncountable x its concrete manifestation: countable - a fate worse than death x several deaths from drowning; these facts show that x the story is founded on fact; act without thought x keep one’s thoughts to oneself; listen in silence x there was a sudden silence; explain in great detail x don’t omit a single detail; etc. - experience1 = zkušenost: uncountable x experience2 = zážitek: countable (she has too little experience x it was a grand experience) (3) substance: uncountable x a kind of substance: countable - to prefer red wine x to have a large assortment of local wines; tobacco(s), wheat(s), etc. (3’) substance: uncountable x a portion of the substance: countable - coffee(s), ice(s), etc. (4) characteristics: uncountable x a bearer of the characteristics: countable - beauty x she is a beauty; his writings sparkle with wit x he is a notable wit; a man of genius x he is a genius; etc. (5) idiosyncratic items: uncountable in one meaning x countable in another - fruit [ovoce] x fruits [plody práce]; paper [papír] x papers [noviny]; toast [toast] x toasts [přípitek]; etc.</p><p>(13.4) Uncountable Nouns</p><p>(1) collective nouns, composite objects (2) names of materials, abstractions, substances, characteristics (3) most of singularia / pluralia tantum (4) partially converted adjectives (5) idiosyncratic items - CZ x E differences: evidence, information, homework, knowledge, luggage, money, news, etc. countable in CZ x uncountable in E - some uncountable nouns can be used with an indefinite article when modified: get up in darkness x an oppressive darkness; by general consent x an unwilling consent; etc. - x uncountable even when modified: great fun, hard luck, great happiness, etc.</p><p>(13.5) Lexical Means of Singularisation</p><p>(1) special lexical items to use uncountable nouns as countable: these lexical items have then little semantic meaning - an act of friendliness / kindness / mercy; an article of news / clothing / furniture; a bar of chocolate; a bit of advice / information / knowledge; a cake of soap; a case of measles / mumps; a fit of anger / coughing / enthusiasm; a flash of lighting; an item of news / interest / evidence; a loaf of bread / cheese; a lump of sugar; a piece of luggage / chalk / advice; a point of interest; a sheet of iron / metal / paper; a shred of evidence; a slice of bread / cake / cheese; a stroke of good luck / misfortune / success; a word of advice / counsel (2) some uncountable nouns > countable synonyms - work > jobs; housework > chores; imagination > fancies; etc. (2’) uncountable nouns ending in –ing > countable converted nouns as synonyms - smoking > have a smoke; breathing > take a deep breath; etc. (3) uncountable pluralia tantum referring to people / names of nationalities > countable synonyms with man/men - the sick > the sick people; the poor > a poor man; the English > the Englishmen; etc.</p>