Society, Culture And People In Landscape Research

Society, culture and people in landscape researchElisabeth Conrad; Ioan Fazey; Mike ChristieE. Conrad; I. Fazey (corresponding author); M. ChristieInstitute of Rural SciencesUniversity of Wales, Aberystwyth, Llanbadarn Fawr, Aberystwyth, Ceredigion, Wales SY23 3 AL, United KingdomEmail: [email protected]Phone: 0044 (0)1970 621612Fax: 0044 (0)1970 611264Date of manuscript draft: 27th April, 2007Manuscript word count (including text, references, tables and caption): 6, 8321 AbstractIf landscape research is to effectively inform environmental policy, it must adequately reflect both biophysical and socio-cultural aspects. This study assesses the degree to which socio- cultural elements are given consideration in landscape research. 931 articles published in landscape research journals during two three-year periods (1995-97 and 2004-06) were examined to assess three socio-cultural aspects, namely: (1) topics of study and the disciplinary basis of research; (2) the degree to which stakeholders are involved in research; and (3) where and by whom landscape research is conducted. Results indicate that there is significant consideration of socio-cultural components in terms of topics and disciplines, but physical concerns still dominate the literature. Furthermore, stakeholder involvement is limited, and there is bias in the distribution of research and researchers, with poor representation of lower income countries. Despite some optimistic trends, it is evident that there is a need for more integration of approaches from the natural and social sciences, greater involvement of stakeholders, and increased capacity building for research in lower income countries. Keywords landscape research, socio-cultural aspects, stakeholders, representativeness, integration2 IntroductionEnvironmental and ecological dynamics are regulated by physical boundaries and are not constrained by human-imposed limits (Rosenbaum 1998; Elnakat 2002), and operate at broad, even global, scales. Nevertheless, environmental and ecological systems are affected 5not only by the physical and biological framework within which they function, but also by socio-economic concerns (Reagan et al 2006). Humans have become the first species on Earth to interact as a whole with the global ecosystem (Eldrege 1995), and the human footprint has more than tripled in the last 40 years (WWF 2006). Adequate management is therefore best achieved by means of employing a spatial framework which includes people as members of a10reasonably scaled, naturally bounded, ecologically defined territory (Thayer 2003). The wide spatial focus of the discipline of landscape ecology employs physical landscape boundaries, together with a broad conceptual outlook that incorporates a variety of ecological, biophysical and human-related considerations, thus contributing to a practical and holistic basis for analysis of ecological and environmental problems. The inclusion of socio-cultural elements 15is of particular relevance given increasing recognition of the interdependencies of the resilience of social and ecological systems. Societies are dependent on ecological systems that provide services essential to human livelihoods and wellbeing (UNEP 1992; Hassan et al 2005; Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005). Similarly, ecological resilience is dependent, in part, on the ability of human societies to regulate and manage activities that may be 20detrimental to the ecological processes on which people depend (Vos and Klijn 2000; Millen- nium Ecosystem Assessment 2005); this consideration is of increasing relevance given the scale of human impacts on the environment in recent decades. Research in the landscape sciences must therefore necessarily address the socio-cultural dimension if it is to contribute to the resolution of present-day ecological and environmental challenges. The latter concern 25pervades ecological and environmental debates, and there is increasing recognition of the ur-3 gent need for research which ensures a sustainable future for the coexistence of humans within natural systems (Palmer et al 2005). Landscape sciences are uniquely placed to contribute such expertise (Naveh 2000) as the concept of landscape bridges the man-nature and ecology- society divides at a fundamental level. However, it has been argued that landscape research 30has failed to live up to its potential to address real-world policy and management problems and that it has contributed little in terms of practical applications (Hobbs 1997). If this is indeed the case, inadequate consideration of socio-cultural components may be partly to blame.This paper aims to assess the extent to which landscape research takes into 35consideration the socio-cultural elements which shape and influence landscapes. To address this aim, we evaluate the degree to which three broad dimensions are considered in the research literature: (1) the type of studies published and their disciplinary basis; (2) the degree to which stakeholders are involved in research; and (3) where, and by whom, research is conducted. The first dimension considers whether socio-cultural aspects are directly 40addressed or whether research is restricted primarily to bio-physical elements. This includes an assessment of the relative combinations of disciplines and of different topics studied. The second dimension determines the degree to which stakeholders’ opinions, values and preferences are included in research as a measure of the degree to which direct human concerns and local knowledge are considered. Stakeholder involvement is increasingly 45recognized not only as a human right, but also as a means to tap into important knowledge, accumulated over generations and which is often inaccessible through other means (Gorjestani 2000), and to increase the likelihood of support and cooperation (Ghimire and Pimbert 1997) in management initiatives. Recognition and understanding of the different perspectives of different stakeholders is also fundamental to successful management 50(Blackmore and Ison 1998). Methods used for involving stakeholders are also evaluated, as 4 different techniques involve stakeholders to different degrees and in different capacities (OECD 2004). The third dimension appraises the degree to which research is representative by considering where research is conducted and by whom. Representativeness is in this case considered to be the degree to which the situations being studied act as a microcosm of the 55wider global setting (Allen 1998), both in terms of the location of study areas and in terms of who is involved in doing research. Addressing these questions provides an indication of the spatial biases of research, specifically the extent to which research incorporates the global variation in socio-cultural contexts and the level of inclusion of locally-based authors, who are likely to be the most familiar with the particular ecological, geographic, and socio-60cultural contexts (Fazey et al 2005; Pitman et al 2007). MethodsOverviewThis review employs some of the methodological ideas presented in guidelines for producing systematic reviews from evidence-based conservation (Fazey et al 2004; Pullin and Stewart 652006). Such methods aim to increase rigour during the process of: (1) searching for appropriate studies; (2) deciding whether individual studies should be included in a review; and (3) during the process of integrating information from different studies, including statistical analysis (Centre for Evidence-Based Conservation 2006). While this study is not a systematic review per se, ideas have been used to improve replicability and reliability of the 70results.Identifying and selecting studiesAll research articles from the years 1995 to 1997, and 2004 to 2006, published in three landscape research journals, namely Landscape Ecology (LE), Landscape and Urban 5 5 75Planning (LUP) and Landscape Research (LR), were included in the study. Two year groups were selected in order to enable examination of changes and trends over the last decade. The earlier years were selected to represent the state of affairs at the time of the last review (Hobbs 1997). The selected journals are the three most widely read periodicals specifically dedicated to landscape research, being the only three journals with ‘landscape’ in their title 80that are either currently, or about to be, included in the Web of Knowledge database of 7500 journals. LE and LUP have impact factors of 2.17 and 1.4 respectively (The Thomson Corporation 2005). LR has recently been included in the database and hence does not yet have an impact factor. The journals reflect a range of concerns. LE focuses on the relationships between pattern and processes and their consequences, predominantly within 85ecological, nature conservation, environmental management, landscape planning, and landscape restoration domains. LUP is concerned with conceptual, scientific, and design approaches to land use, emphasising in particular ecological understanding and a multi- disciplinary approach to analysis, planning and design. LR addresses a range of topics including design, management, ecology, geology, archaeology and cultural studies. There are 90likely to be studies relevant to landscape research in other journals, such as ones from ecology, geography, sociology, forestry and agriculture (e.g. Biological Conservation, Journal of Environmental Management, Ecology and Society, Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, Forest Policy and Economics, amongst several others). However, identifying and selecting relevant landscape studies from such a wide range of disciplinary 95foci is difficult. We therefore argue that studies from LE, LUP and LR provide a sufficient overview of the current status of socio-cultural considerations in landscape research. Data collection6 100A total of 931 research articles were reviewed (Table 1) by the primary author (EC) through skim-reading and full reading of relevant sections, such as aims and methodological descriptions, where necessary. Numerous questions were asked of each paper, with questions having been derived by all authors from a preliminary review of approximately 90 papers, evenly distributed between the three journals and six years, i.e. 5 papers from each journal for105each year. These papers were read in full in order to enable identification of questions. The papers were subsequently re-read as part of the full review. Questions covered a range of concerns, intended to provide answers to the questions about the three main dimensions that this paper investigates (Table 2). 110#Table 1##Table 2#Data analysisAll categorical data was re-coded into numeric values and data from the two year groups was 115separately analysed through descriptive statistics using SPSS (version 14.0). As the number of papers published was considerably higher in the later year group, results were analysed both in terms of absolute values (number of papers) and also in terms of relative proportions, and are presented accordingly below. Results120Dimension 1: What are the main topics of study and the disciplinary bases of research?Topics of studyIn 1995-97, 43.5% of studies addressed a topic with a predominantly physical focus, a proportion which increased to 51.6% in 2004-06 (Figure 1a). The percentage of studies 7 addressing a predominantly socio-cultural topic of research increased slightly from 10.8% to 12516.4% between the two year groups (Figure 1a). The proportion of studies addressing both physical and socio-cultural topics declined considerably, from 45.7% of studies in 1995-97, to 32% of all studies in 2004-06. There were significant differences in the distribution of topic types between year groups (χ2 = 19.2, p < 0.005). Of studies including a socio-cultural topic, the majority considered landscape policy and management issues (Figure 1b); however,130the proportion of studies addressing this topic declined in the time span considered (from 59.3% of studies with a socio-cultural topic in 1995-97, to 46.4% in the latter year group). The proportion of studies considering implications of landscape issues for humans increased (6% of studies with a socio-cultural topic in 1995-97 to 11.4% in 2004-06), as did studies assessing human perceptions of landscape (with an increase from 8% to 14.3% of studies 135with a socio-cultural topic, between the two year groups). 26.6% of studies in 1995-97 and 27.9% of studies in 2004-6 including a socio-cultural topic, addressed more than one sub- topic. Differences between the distribution of sub-topics in different year groups were found to be significant (χ2 = 11.3 p < 0.01).140# Figure 1#Disciplinary basis of researchThere were more studies, in both year groups, with a physical science disciplinary focus than ones involving with a social science disciplinary focus (33.5% and 44.3% of all studies 145involved physical science disciplines in 1995-97 and 2004-06 respectively; 17.1% and 21% of all studies involved a social science discipline in the earlier and later year groups respectively) (Figure 2a). The proportion of studies considering both a physical and a social science discipline decreased from 49.4% in 1995-97 to 34.7% in 2004-06 (even if absolute 8 numbers of such studies increased) (Figure 2a). Differences in the relative proportions of 150studies between year groups were significant (χ2 = 19.62, p<0.001). The majority of studies involving social sciences included outlooks from the disciplines of planning and management(Figure 2b); nevertheless, the contribution of these disciplines declined slightly between the two year groups (from 36.3% to 33.2% of studies involving social disciplines). There were slight increases in the proportion of studies from anthropology and sociology (7.7% to 12.7% 155of studies involving social science disciplines), economics (0.9% to 1.2%), history (5.1% to 6.8%) and design (1.3% to 1.9%) (Figure 2b) between year groups. The 2004-06 studies also included the disciplines of philosophy and law, which were absent from studies in the earlier year group. The proportion of studies addressing more than one social science discipline declined between the two year groups, from 48.7% to 43.5% of studies including a social 160science discipline (Figure 2b). The change in the relative contributions of different social science disciplines between 1995-97 and 2004-06, should however, be interpreted with caution given lack of statistical significance (χ2 = 4.2, p>0.75). # Figure 2#165 Dimension 2: To what extent are stakeholders involved in research?Extent of involvement of stakeholdersThe percentage of studies involving stakeholders increased from 13.6% in 1995-97 to 17.4% in 2004-06. Of these studies, the majority fit within the moderate degree of participation 170(Table 2) (62.5% of studies involving stakeholders in 1995-97 and 85.2% in 2004-06) (Figure3). Correspondingly, there has been a decline in the percentage of studies involving stakeholders either for eliciting and/or testing data (minimal participation) (from 22.9% of studies involving stakeholders to 6.9%), and in those studies where stakeholder involvement 9 is limited to professionals, academics and/or official agencies (minor participation) (from 17512.5% of studies involving stakeholders to 6.9%). The percentage of studies which may be considered truly participatory (high participation) is very limited in both year groups (2.1% and 1 % of studies involving stakeholders respectively). Significant changes have occurred in the relative proportion of different stakeholder involvement classes over the time-span of this review (χ2 =12.1, p<0.05).180 # Figure 3#Methods used to involve stakeholdersThe dominant research methods used to involve stakeholders are interviews and 185questionnaires (Figure 4). Use of the latter has increased by 10.3% between the two year groups, whilst use of the former has declined by 24.8%. The 2004-06 studies are also characterised by the use of group methods, such as focus groups and workshops, (largely absent from the earlier year group except in the case of some studies utilizing more than one method) and the emergence of more novel techniques such as those relating to Participatory 190Rural Appraisal (PRA), and Visitor Employed Photography (VEP), the latter as part of studies utilizing multiple methods. 19.6% and 29.8% of studies actively involving stakeholders, in 1995-97 and 2004-06 respectively, utilized more than one method. Changes in the relative distribution of methods between year groups are not statistically significant (χ2 =9.3, p>0.05) and need to be interpreted with caution. 195 # Figure 4#Dimension 3: To what extent is research and its researchers representative of the global 10 10 setting?200Where is research conducted? 198 studies in 1995-97 and 371 studies in 2004-06 were conducted in North America and Europe (Figure 5), representing 79.5% and 77.8% respectively, of all research events conducted in different countries. In the earlier year group, the dominant geographical areas of study were located in North America (38.6% of research events in different countries), 205Northern Europe (18.1% of research events in different countries) and Western Europe (17.7% of research events in different countries). The top 3 regions in the latter 2004-06 year group remained unchanged, except for a reversal of the placings of Western and Northern Europe (North America, Western Europe, and Northern Europe with 31.7%, 21%, 15.9% of research events conducted in different countries respectively). The contributions of Eastern 210Asia, Australia and New Zealand and Southern Europe increased substantially between year groupings whilst that of Southern Africa decreased, with 12 studies conducted in the earlier year group and only 2 conducted in the latter year group. Changes in the geographical distribution of studies between year groups are significant (χ2 = 47.5, p<0.001).81.6% and 84.3% of studies in 1995-97 and 2004-06 respectively, were conducted in high income 215countries. Changes in distribution of studies between income groups over the time-span of the review are not significant (χ2 = 6.3, p>0.09)# Figure 5#220To what extent are local researchers involved? Data on the relationship between authorship and country of study is presented in Figure 6.There was little difference between the proportion of studies conducted by primary authors from high income countries between 1995-97 and 2004-06 (87% and 90% respectively). Of 11 studies conducted in lower income countries, few have local involvement (Figure 6). Only 2250.4% of studies in low income countries had an author from that country in 1995-97, and the increase to 0.7% in 2004-06 is negligible. The involvement of authors from lower middle income countries is likewise low (4% in 1995-97 and 5.8% in 2004-06). Research in high income countries appears to involve local researchers to a very large degree (85.9% in 1995-97 and 88.9% in 2004-06). When research involves authors who are not from the same 230country as the primary author, the dominance of high income countries is again evident, with 80% of secondary authors in 1995-97 and 88.68% in 2004-06 originating from high income countries.# Figure 6#235DiscussionDisciplines and topicsIt is evident from the results of this review that there is more extensive consideration of physical topics and of insights from the physical sciences, than of socio-cultural counterparts (Figures 1 and 2). However, the socio-cultural component is far from insubstantial. In 240particular, there is a clear interest in research on landscape planning and management issues. The concerns expressed by Hobbs (1997) in relation to the true applicability of landscape research would therefore appear to be less pertinent on the basis of this review. However, it should be noted that firstly, this review is based on a wider range of journals (with Hobbs’ review having been based solely on LE), and secondly, that theoretical and academic 245consideration of planning and management issues does not necessarily translate into practical applicability. Nevertheless, there are some encouraging trends, such as the increased proportion of research focusing on human perceptions (Figure 1), and thus suggesting 12 increased consideration of the socio-cultural component at a more fundamental level, i.e. assessing what people think, rather than merely how to manage their activities. The trend 250towards a broader social science disciplinary base is also encouraging, with the inclusion of new disciplines in the later years of the review (Figure 2) suggesting that advances are being made towards the development of a truly holistic discipline. The proportional increase in several social science disciplines, including anthropology and sociology, economics and history, in landscape research is likewise encouraging. On a less positive note, the 255considerable decrease in the proportion of studies considering both physical and social science disciplines, or both physical and socio-cultural topics, between the two year groups, suggests that Hobbs’ concerns about landscape ecology’s failure to live up to its potential as an integrative science may be increasingly relevant. Analysis of physical aspects in isolation will have limited applicability in the real-world, particularly given the increasing realization 260of the true extent of human influence on the planet’s biophysical and ecological systems (DesJardins 2001; Christensen 2006). At the same time, socio-cultural aspects need to be considered in relation to the physical setting in which they occur, and on which human life ultimately depends. 265Stakeholder involvementDespite the proportional increase between the two year groups reviewed, of studies directly involving stakeholders, the extent of such involvement is still very limited. In terms of the nature of involvement, the focus is primarily on obtaining views (Figure 3), and hence research is primarily extractive, deriving knowledge and data from respondents, with little 270consideration of stakeholder perceptions and opinions. True participatory research, which aims to facilitate, empower and build capacity is extremely limited. This participatory form of stakeholder involvement should arguably be the ultimate target of research which aims to 13 relate to the real-world, as ecological and environmental futures will be determined by the actions of a wide range of stakeholders, rather than merely by those of an academic elite 275(Mannigel 2004; Renn and Oppermann 1995). The academic commmunity has an opportunity to contribute towards empowering people to be able to make well-informed decisions, an achievement which would be all the more notable given our bleak environmental situation globally and the lack of success of related measures at various societal levels (Brand 2000). However, achieving true participation and empowerment is 280dependent on more than the goodwill of researchers, being intrinsically tied to the wider social and political context; it is therefore recognized that, in particular contexts, even less extensive forms of stakeholder involvement may represent significant achievements. The methods used to involve stakeholders were also considered, as these also vary in the extent to which they are extractive and/or facilitative. Techniques of the former group still 285predominate (Figure 4). However, the uptake of more novel research techniques which involve people more intensively, and which question traditional assumptions about the nature of stakeholder involvement in research (such as techniques from Participatory Rural Appraisal and Visitor-Employed Photography) present a positive sign. Nevertheless, use of such techniques is still very limited, and much stakeholder involvement seems to be 290dependent on the more traditional extractive techniques of interviews and questionnaires. Representativeness of researchThere is clearly some cause for concern about the distribution of research efforts. Although it is understandable that there is more research carried out in countries where there are more 295funding sources, landscape is a global resource and a global concern. Furthermore, different societies have their own distinctive view of landscape and its values (Phillips 2000), and threats to landscapes, although universal, will be unique within a particular social context. 14 This emerges partly from the discipline of landscape ecology itself. The views taken by the two different schools of landscape ecology very much reflect the different physical 300environments; on the one hand, the North American school is more concerned with natural ecosystems, relating to American society’s concern with ever-dwindling natural landscapes, whilst the European school focuses on transformed landscapes, reflecting the extent of modified landscapes in the region (Farina 2000). It is therefore evident that the management approach needs to be tailored to the unique social setting. It follows that the insights derived 305from research in North America and Europe may not necessarily be applicable to the rest of the world, and at worst, extrapolation of methods ‘wholesale’ to different social contexts may do more harm than good (e.g. Altieri 1989; Thrupp 1989; Stevens 1997). There is therefore a critical need for a focus on the local level, and the involvement of local specialists is likewise important, not only because of their better understanding of the setting but also because 310management solutions will need to be implemented by locals if they are to be sustainable. In particular, scientific capacity needs to be developed the world over, as landscape management initiatives will be dependent on such local scientific expertise. There are presently large differences in the scientific investment of different nations in all aspects of science (May 1998), with 31 (mostly high-income) countries accounting for more than 98% 315of the world’s highly cited papers (King 2004). There is therefore an evident need for more collaboration at an international level and capacity building in lower income countries. It is acknowledged that the results of this study may oversee some local involvement, as the country of primary author was defined based on the address of his or her institution; researchers from one country publishing under an institution in another country were 320therefore not catered for. There may also be specialists involved who are not directly involved as authors in the publication process. Nevertheless, it is evident that research in the landscape field is dominated by high income countries, even when such research is carried 15 15 out in countries within the lower income categories (Figures 5 and 6). This suggests that there is an element of ‘appropriation’ of research in lower income countries, which tends to be 325extractive. Furthermore, when results are compared to those derived by Fazey et al (2005) in a similar review of research efforts in conservation biology, the bias towards high income countries appears to be far more marked with reference to landscape research, with 56% of studies conducted in high income countries in the conservation biology review, and over 80% of studies conducted in high income countries in this review. 330Are socio-cultural dimensions adequately represented in landscape research?The objective of this research in assessing the extent to which social and cultural concerns feature on the landscape research agenda is not intended to detract from the importance of the study of physical aspects, patterns and processes. The latter provide a necessary basis for 335real-world planning and management efforts. However, these should be coupled with an understanding of the social and cultural. Landscape is, by definition, both a physical and a social construct. The contributions of both natural and social sciences are therefore indispensable in the pursuit of a better understanding of landscapes and a solid foundation for their management. 340Although this study indicates that there are mixed trends in research in the field, there is clearly scope for more inclusion of socio-cultural concerns on the research agenda. This is particularly the case given the increasing shift towards science that is publicly accountable (O’Riordan 2000), and that involves ethical and judgmental issues. A number of 345commentaries have contended that increasingly, academic practice privileges abstract and scientific knowledge over practical and policy-oriented knowledge (Ward 2005). This is not 16 to say that the measure of academic research should be merely its ability to provide answers to our environmental and social concerns. However, the scientific community does have a responsibility to ensure that research is relevant to the concerns of society at large and to the 350resolution of urgent ecological and environmental problems; the consideration of socio- cultural dimensions of landscape is a clear positive step in this regard. The importance of such considerations has indeed been reiterated by several authors (Naveh 1994; Hughes 1999;Decamps 2000; O’Rourke 2005; Ermischer 2004). Practical results however demonstrate a far less resolute commitment. In part this may arise out of difficulties in bridging the 355philosophical and methodological divides between the natural and social sciences, and the tendency to judge scientific research more within parameters of the former than those of the latter. This is undoubtedly due, at least to some extent, to the fact that landscape ecology has its origins in the natural sciences (Makhzoumi and Pungetti 1999). However, socio-cultural research should not be expected to conform to the methodological norms of the natural 360sciences, as it deals with different systems and operates within different constraints. Whilst natural sciences seek to derive universal truths and generalisations (Beck 1949), socio- cultural research is not necessarily amenable to reductionism or to extrapolation, and indeed, researchers may seek to study factors of uniqueness rather than generalisability (Dyson and Brown 2006). Taken together, both natural and social sciences can provide the basis for a 365functional understanding of the real world, enabling successful management initiatives. On the basis of the findings of this review, there is clearly potential for landscape research to progress in this regard, through (i) increased consideration of socio-cultural aspects of study; (ii) increased focus on aspects of study which combine physical and socio-cultural dimensions; (iii) increased inclusion of stakeholders in the research process; (iv) increased 370uptake of diverse methods for involving stakeholders, (v) increased research in lower income countries, and (vi) increased collaboration with authors from lower income countries, 17 ConclusionThe major challenge ahead for the landscape research community appears to lie in successful integration of approaches from the natural and social sciences. The calls for integration are 375certainly not new, and many authors have highlighted the need for more transdisciplinary and interdisciplinary landscape research (e.g. Allesch 1990; Nassauer 1995; Makhzoumi and Pungetti 1999; Naveh 2000; Fry 2001; Tress et al 2003; Wu and Hobbs 2002). Nevertheless, the issue of integration still appears to be as relevant as ever. Beyond the need for integration across disciplines, however, there is also a need for integration between researchers and the 380broader community of stakeholders, as well as integration between research efforts and researchers in different parts of the world. Redclift’s (1992) observations on the preconditions for sustainable development are worth bearing in mind. He notes that first, the social target groups, structures and systems have to be assessed and involved in research and decision making, and second, the competence to perform and implement decisions among the385groups involved has to be developed. 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The former include physical and biological properties of landscape and human impacts on physical landscapes whilst the latter include studies of implications of landscape matters for humans, of human perceptions of landscape issues, together with studies relating to planning and management of landscapes. Studies addressing topics with both physical and socio-cultural topics were classified within a separate category. Defined as a set of paradigmatic structures, and shared philosophical and/or methodological approaches, which give validity to the work produced within those structures. A distinction is made between disciplines of the physical sciences (namely physics, biology, chemistry and mathematics) and those which are more social science-oriented, (namely anthropology, sociology, history, Disciplinary basis of study: philosophy, law and economics. Design and planning and management were also included in this latter category as they are concerned with anthropogenic elements and with the control of anthropogenic activities). Studies with more or less equal input from both physical sciences and the social sciences were classified within a separate category. 4 categories were defined, based on two broad criteria, namely inclusivity (Poolman and Van de Giesen 2006; Nelson and Wright 1995; Slocum 1995; Kapoor 2001) and the nature of information flow (Rowe and Frewer 2004; Pretty et al 1995; OECD 2004; Health Canada 2000). Minimal participation involves stakeholders solely for the purpose of obtaining data that is otherwise Extent of involvement of unavailable/inaccessible, and/or for testing data or methodologies. Minor participation considers stakeholders’ views, concerns and stakeholders: knowledge. However, stakeholders are limited to the research community, academics, professionals and official agencies. Moderate participation incorporates the views, concerns, and knowledge of a wide range of stakeholders, including the general public. High participation goes beyond the extractive process of eliciting views and actively seeks to facilitate and empower stakeholders and/or to build capacity for stakeholders to undertake analysis and management. Methods identified were questionnaires, interviews, group methods (i.e. focus groups, group meetings and workshops), Methods used to involve Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) methods (e.g. Chambers 1994) and Visitor Employed Photography (VEP) (Stedman et al stakeholders: 2004; Oku and Fukamachi 2006) These were categorized as per the World Bank List of Economies (2006) and the United Nations classification of geographical regions (2006). Economic categories are based on Gross National Income (GNI) per capita, as follows: low income, i.e. ≤$875 (e.g. Country of study/country of Kenya, India), lower middle income, i.e. $876-$3 465 (e.g. Brazil, Philippines), upper middle income, i.e. $3 466-$10 725 (e.g. author/s’ institution/s: Russian Federation, Turkey), and high income, i.e. ≥$10 726 (e.g. USA, Germany). The main geographical groupings comprise the Americas, Europe, Africa, Asia and Oceania, with sub-groupings within each category. 24 Figure captionsFigure 1 (a). Percentage of studies within each year group by topic of study. Categories are: (i) studies with a physically-focused topic of study only, (ii) studies with a socio-culturally focused topic of study only, and (iii) studies with both. Figure 1 (b). Distribution of all studies including a socio- cultural topic (n=199 in 1995-97; n=280 in 2004-06), by sub-topic, for each year group. Figure 2 (a) Percentage of studies within each year group by disciplinary focus. Categories are: (i) studies with a physical science disciplinary focus only, (ii) studies with a social science disciplinary focus only, and (iii) studies with both. Figure 2 (b) Distribution of all studies including a social science discipline (n=234 in 1995-97; n=322 in 2004-06), by discipline, for each year group.Figure 3. Distribution of studies involving stakeholders, in 1995-97 and 2004-06, by category of involvement (n= 48 in 1995-97; n=101 in 2004-06).Figure 4. Distribution of studies actively involving stakeholders, by method used (n=46 in 1995-97; n=97 in 2004-06; 2 studies in the earlier year group and 4 studies in the latter year group engaged stakeholders in a passive capacity, e.g. physiological testing).Figure 5. Distribution of studies in 1995-97 and 2004-06 by geographical region. Total number of studies involving a country of study = 726 (249 in 1995-97 and 477 in 2004-06), of which 21 involved 2 countries of study, 6 involved 3 countries of study, 1 involved 4 countries of study and 1 involved 7 countries of study. Total number of research events in different countries = 753Figure 6 (a) Distribution of studies in 1995-97 and 2004-06 by income group of country of study (n=753 research events in different countries). Figure 6 (b) Percentage of studies conducted within each income group involving a primary author from the country of study in 1995-97 and 2004-06 (n=number of studies involving primary author/total number of studies in income group). Figure 6 (c) Percentage of studies conducted within each income group involving any author from the country of study in 1995-07 and 2004-06 (n=number of studies involving any author/total number of studies in income group). 25 25 Figure 1a/b26 Figure 2a/b27 Figure 328 Figure 429 Figure 530 30 Figure 6a/b/c31

Society, Culture And People In Landscape Research

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