Ahliat va Masir (Roots and Routes) Narratives of identity and adaptation from Persian Baha'i refugees in Australia. Ruth Williams Bachelor of Arts (Monash University) Bachelor of Teaching (Hons) (University of Melbourne) This thesis is submitted in total fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Behavioural and Social Sciences and Humanities University of Ballarat, PO Box 663, University Drive, Mount Helen, Ballarat, Victoria, 3353, Australia Submitted for examination in December 2008. 1 Abstract This study aims to discover what oral history narratives reveal about the post- migration renegotiation of identity for seven Persian Baha'i refugees and to assess the ensuing impact on their adaptation to Australia. Oral history interviewing was used as the methodology in this research and a four-part model of narrative classification was employed to analyse the oral history interviews. This small-scale, case study research offers in-depth insights into the process of cross- cultural renegotiation of identities and of adaptation to new situations of a group who do not reflect the generally negative outcomes of refugees. Such a method fosters greater understanding and sensitivity than may be possible in broad, quantitative studies. This research reveals the centrality of religion to the participants' cosmopolitan and hybrid identities. The Baha'i belief system facilitates the reidentification and adaptation processes through advocating such aspects as intermarriage and dispersal amongst the population. The dual themes of separateness and belonging; continuity and change; and communion and agency also have considerable heuristic value in understanding the renegotiation of identity and adaptation. Participants demonstrate qualities of agency by becoming empowered, self-made individuals, who are represented in well-paid occupations with high status qualifications. It seems that their motivation to adapt is dominated by their desire to become functioning citizens as well as effective Baha'is. Despite the appearance of, almost model adaptation, these participants, like other refugees, have experienced enormous challenges and suffered humiliation and frustration through such factors as work discrimination, lack of self-esteem and culture shock. Although it is politely muted, there is also evidence of a strain to find aspects of value in the host culture, of a grappling with uninhibited freedom and individuality, of a struggle to tolerate slights and exclusionary practices, and of the experience of disempowerment in the face of diminished language facility. 2 Statement of authorship Except where explicit reference is made in the text of the thesis, this thesis contains no material published elsewhere or extracted in whole or in part from a thesis by which I have qualified for or been awarded another degree or diploma. No other person's work has been relied upon or used without due acknowledgment in the main text and bibliography of the thesis. Applicant Ruth Williams Date: Supervisor Dr. Janice Newton Date: 3 Acknowledgments I would firstly like to thank the seven participants who took part in this study. I would particularly like to acknowledge their generosity in time and willingness to share personal and sometimes very painful memories. May their continued life journey be one of peace and contentment. Principal Supervisor, Dr. Janice Newton, University of Ballarat: I really cannot say enough to express your professionalism and my appreciation. Your knowledge and efforts were tireless as was your generosity. I would especially like to thank you for the quick turn-around times and degree of detail for feedback, and also for your friendship. Associate Supervisor, Dr. David Waldron, University of Ballarat: thankyou for agreeing to come on board late, especially taking me on as your first PhD candidate for supervision. Thank you to the University of Ballarat for providing the scholarship to undertake this thesis, and the School of Behavioural and Social Science and Humanities, University of Ballarat, for support with costs related to infrastructure and conferences. Thanks also to administration staff, especially Fiona Hodder, who frequently went out of her way to assist and Alan Penhall for technical and I.T support. Thank you also to the document delivery service at University of Ballarat library, especially Sue Taylor. Thank you to the Research and Graduate Studies Office (RAGSO), University of Ballarat, for workshops, guidance and advice, especially Di Clingin whose knowledge of the system is incomparable and thank you also to other academics who gave valuable feedback and advice: From University of Ballarat: Dr. John McDonald, Dr. Bev Blaskett, Dr. Jeremy Smith, Dr. Meg Tasker, Dr. Angus McLachlan, and Dr. Anne Doggett. From James Cook University, Cairns: Dr. Jan Wegner, Dr. Margaret Bluett, and Dr. Janine Hiddlestone. I would also like to thank the staff at the Leongatha library and Number 9 Dream Cafe in Leongatha, for putting up with my long stays, especially in the winter. Family: Wil Powney (my life partner), for your depth of love, support, encouragement and pride in me! You were always there to celebrate the small milestones with a sense of humour, a bottle of wine and chocolate -1 love sharing my life with you!; our beautiful daughter, Molly, your smile and sunny disposition could raise the Titanic!; our gorgeous son, Bryn, who blessed us with his presence in this world six weeks after I submitted this thesis!; Sylvia and Geraint Williams (Mum and Dad), for your eternal source of unconditional love and support; my brother, Mei, for being there and being you; and lastly, my grandparents, Mam and Grump, I wish you could have been here for the celebrations, I miss you both terribly. 4 Peers: Dr. Laura Kostanski and Tom Coulson, for being my family and home-away- from-home in Ballarat. I especially appreciated your time, camaraderie, those great conversations, Tom's cooking and all that wine!; Dr. Nadine Zacharias and Dr. Uma Jogulu, for all your encouragement, friendship and valuable tips. Friends: Belinda Kent (for your Ballarat hospitality - even when you made me brush your hair while you watched Desperate Housewives), Michelle Nakamura (for your interest in my work and your bawdy humour which kept me laughing and sane), Liz Sadler (for the many brews of Bush Flower essences to keep me 'in-tune'), Juli and Paul Parkinson (for your unerring long-term friendship), Scott Laughton (for all the IT advice and services on tap), others for your close friendship and being there: Megan Donohue, Anna Close-Mewett, Jo Trewin, Bron and Brad Beach, Raj at Taneja, Bridget Crowe, Leanne Ennis, Jennifer Hazelwood, Natalie Watt, and the girls at Mum's group (Claire Guy, Claire Hutchinson, Sarah Donohue, Danielle Mackie and Beth Hill-Smith). 5 Table of contents List of abbreviations 7 List of figures, tables and graphs 8 Glossary of terms 11 Chapter One Introduction 15 Chapter Two The Baha'i faith and the 1979 Iranian Islamic Revolution 37 Chapter Three Psychosocial and structural features of adaptation of the refugee and immigrant 58 Chapter Four Oral history and the life history narrative 80 Chapter Five Identity 93 Chapter Six The significance or not of Persian, Baha'i and 'Diasporic' cultural contexts 113 Chapter Seven Self and narrative: holistic-content analysis 144 Chapter Eight Self and narrative: categorical-content analysis 191 Chapter Nine Self and narrative: holistic-form analysis 240 Chapter Ten Self and narrative: categorical-form analysis 300 Chapter Eleven Conclusion 328 Appendices 335 Bibliography 339 6 Abbreviations C1MS Centre for Immigration and Multicultural Studies DIEA Department of Indigenous and Ethnic Affairs DJJVIIA Department of Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs HREOC Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission LGA Local Government Area LSA Local Spiritual Assembly LSIA Longitudinal Study of Immigrants to Australia NESB Non-English Speaking Background NSA National Spiritual Assembly PTSD Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder TPV Temporary Protection Visa UHJ Universal House of Justice UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees 7 List of figures, tables & graphs Figures Page Chapter 2 Figure 2.1 Baha'i Universal House of Justice on Mount Carrnel, Haifa, Israel. 39 Figure 2.2 Baha'i House of Worship in New Delhi, India. 41 Figure 2.3 Baha'i House of Worship near Sydney, Australia. 42 Figure 2.4 Shah of Iran and Empress Farah, whose personal extravagances alienated many Iranians. 44 Figure 2.5 Ayatollah Khomeini's return to Iran in 1979. 46 Figure 2.6 Hyde and Clara Dunn, attributed as bringing the Baha'i faith to Australia in 1920. 53 Chapter 5 Figure 5.1 One of the most holy sites in the Baha'i faith, the House of the Bab, Shiraz, Iran. 106 Figure 5.2 Destruction of the House of the Bab in 1979 by Revolutionary zealots. 106 Figure 5.3 Destruction of the resting place of Quddus in Babol, Iran, in April 2004. 107 8 Chapter 6 Figure 6.1 Baha'i symbology of the nine-pointed star, the Ringstone symbol and The Greatest Name. 127 Figure 6.2 Photograph of' Abdu'1-Baha, son of the prophet, Baha'u'llah. 127 Chapter 7 Figure 7.1 'Farideh' s' maternal grandparents in Manshad-Yazd, 2 years before her grandfather's death. 160 Figure 7.2 The significance of martyrdom in Persian culture, depicted in a photograph of a photograph of 'Farideh's' grandfather after he was martyred in Yazd, in September 1980, aged 82. 160 Figure 7.3 Mona, a 17 year old Baha'i martyr to which Farideh referred to as kissing the hands of her executioners. 164 Figure 7.4 'Farideh's' sister's house in Shiraz in 1979. Photograph taken by a neighbour. 174 Figure 7.5 'Farideh's' parent's house in Shiraz in 1979. Photograph taken by a neighbour. 174 Chapter 9 Figure 9.1 Friends of Mrs K. referred to in her narrative: ten Baha'i women hanged in Shiraz, Iran on June 18, 1983, for teaching religious classes to Baha'i youth.