<p> 1</p><p>CHAPTER 12: MOTIVATION AND EMOTION</p><p>I. Motivation A. Vocabulary 1. motivation – internal processes that initiate, sustain, and direct activities. 2. need – an internal deficiency that may energize behavior. 3. drive – psychological expression of internal needs or valued goals, e.g., hunger, thirst, or a drive for success. 4. response – any action, glandular activity, or other identifiable behavior. 5. goal – target or objective of motivated behavior. 6. incentive value – value of a goal above and beyond its ability to fill a need.</p><p>B. Type of Motives 1. primary motives – innate motives based on biological needs. 2. stimulus motives- innate needs for stimulation and information 3. secondary motives – motives based on learned needs, drives, and goals. 4. homeostasis – a steady state of bodily equilibrium.</p><p>II. Hunger A. Brain Mechanisms 1. hypoglycemia – below-normal blood sugar level. 2. hypothalamus – small area at the base of the brain that regulates many aspects of motivation and emotion, especially hunger, thirst, and sexual behavior. 3. feeding system – areas of the hypothalamus that initiate eating when stimulated (lateral hypothalamus). It’s sensitive to levels of glucose/sugar in the blood and chemicals in marijuana. 4. satiety system – areas in the hypothalamus that terminate eating (ventromedial hypothalamus). 5. neuropeptide Y – a substance in the brain that initiates eating. 6. glucagons-like peptide 1 – a substance in the brain that terminates eating; released by intestines; takes about 10 for hypothalamus to respond. 7. set point – proportion of body fat that tends to be maintained by changes in hunger and eating. 8. leptin – a substance released by fat cells that inhibits eating.</p><p>B. Obesity 1. external eating cue – any external stimulus that tends to encourage hunger or to elicit eating. 2. diet – types and amounts of food and drink regularly consumed over a period of time. 2</p><p>C. Paradox of Yo-Yo Dieting 1. weight cycling – repeated swings between losing and gaining weight. 2. metabolic rate – rate at which energy is consumed by bodily activity. 3. behavioral dieting – weight reduction based on changing exercise and eating habits rather than temporary self-starvation.</p><p>D. Other Factors in Hunger 1. cultural values – importance and desirability of various objects and activities as defined by people in a given culture. 2. taste a. taste aversion is an active dislike for a particular food. b. bait shyness – an unwillingness or hesitation on the part of animals to eat a particular food.</p><p>E. Eating Disorders 1. anorexia nervosa – active self-starvation or a sustained loss of appetite that has psychological origins. 2. bulimia nervosa – excessive eating/gorging usually followed by self- induced vomiting and/or taking laxatives. 3. causes – related to control issues; have a distorted view of themselves and exaggerated fears of becoming fat. 4. treatment</p><p>III. Primary Motives Revisited A. Thirst 1. extracellular thirst – thirst caused by a reduction in the volume of fluids found between body cells; caused by vomiting/sweating/perspiration. 2. intracellular thirst – thirst triggered when fluid is drawn out of cells due to an increased concentration of salts and minerals outside the cell; caused by eating excess salt.</p><p>B. Pain 1. episodic drive – a drive that occurs in distinct episodes, e.g., pain.</p><p>C. Sex Drive 1. estrogen – any of a number of female sex hormones. 2. androgen – any of a number of male sex hormones, e.g., testosterone. 3. non-homeostatic drive – a drive that is relatively independent of physical deprivation cycles or bodily need states. In humans, sex drive is relatively independent of bodily need states and is non-homeostatic. 4. Coolidge effect – p. 442. 3</p><p>IV. Stimulus Drives A. Arousal Theory 1. stimulus drives – drives based on needs for exploration, manipulation, curiosity, and stimulation. 2. arousal theory – assumes that people prefer to maintain ideal, or comfortable, levels of arousal. 3. arousal – overall level of activation in the body and nervous system of a person or animal.</p><p>B. Sensation seeking – personality characteristic of persons who prefer high levels of stimulation.</p><p>C. Levels of Arousal 1. inverted U function – a curve, roughly in the shape of an upside-down U, that relates performance to levels of arousal. 2. Yerkes-Dodson law – a summary of the relationships among arousal, task complexity, and performance. 3. test anxiety – high levels of arousal and worry that seriously impair test performance.</p><p>D. Circadian Rhythms 1. circadian rhythms – cyclical changes in bodily functions and arousal levels that vary on a schedule approximating a 24-hour day. 2. shift work and jet lag 3. preadaptation – gradual matching of sleep-waking cycles to a new time schedule before an anticipated change in circadian rhythms. 4. melatonin – a hormone produced by the pineal gland in response to cycles of light and dark.</p><p>V. Learned Motives A. Opponent-Process Theory – states that strong emotions tend to be followed by an opposite emotional state; also the strength of both emotional states changes over time.</p><p>B. Social Motives – learned motives acquired as part of growing up in a particular society or culture.</p><p>C. Need for Achievement 1. need for achievement – desire to excel or meet some internalized standard of excellence. 2. need for power – the desire to have social impact and control over others. 3. characteristics of achievers – moderate risk takers. 4</p><p>D. Key to Success 1. Bloom found that drive and determination vs. great talent led to exceptional success. 2. self-confidence – belief that one can successfully carry out an activity or reach a goal.</p><p>VII. Motives in Perspective A. Hierarchy of human needs – Abraham Maslow’s ordering of needs, based on their presumed strength or potency. 1. basic needs – first of four levels of needs in Maslow’s hierarchy; lower needs tend to be more potent than higher needs. 2. growth needs – in Maslow’s hierarchy, the higher-level needs associated with self-actualization.</p><p>B. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 1. intrinsic motivation – motivation that comes from within, rather than from external rewards; motivation based on personal enjoyment of a task or activity. 2. extrinsic motivation – motivation based on obvious external rewards, obligations, or similar factors.</p><p>C. Turning Play into Work</p><p>VIII. Inside an Emotion A. Vocabulary 1. emotion – a sate characterized by physiological arousal, changes in facial expression, gestures, posture, and subjective feelings. 2. adaptive behaviors – actions that aid attempts to survive and adapt to changing conditions. 3. physiological changes (in emotions) – alterations in heart rate, blood pressure, perspiration, and other involuntary responses. 4. adrenaline – a hormone produced by the adrenal glands that tends to arouse the body. 5. emotional expression – outward signs that an emotion is occurring. 6. emotional feelings – private, subjective experience of having an emotion.</p><p>B. Primary emotions 1. primary emotions - according to Robert Plutchik, the most basic emotions are fear, surprise, sadness, disgust, anger, anticipation, joy, and acceptance. 2. mood – a low-intensity, long-lasting emotional state.</p><p>C. Brain and emotion 1. amygdala – part of the limbic system that produces fear responses. 5</p><p>IX. Physiology and Emotion A. Flight or Flight 1. autonomic nervous system (ANS) – system of nerves that connects the brain with the internal organs and glands. 2. sympathetic branch – part of the ANS that activates the body at times of stress. 3. parasympathetic branch – part of the ANS that quiets the body and conserves energy. 4. parasympathetic rebound – excess activity in the parasympathetic nervous system following a period of intense emotion.</p><p>B. Lie Detectors 1. polygraph – a device for recording heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, and the galvanic skin response; commonly called a lie detector. 2. galvanic skin response – a change in the electrical resistance (or inversely, the conductance) of the skin due to sweating. 3. irrelevant questions – in a polygraph exam , neutral, non-threatening, or non-emotional questions. 4. relevant questions – in a polygraph exam, questions to which only a guilty person should react. 5. control questions – in a polygraph exam, questions that almost always provoke anxiety.</p><p>X. Expressing Emotions A. Facial Expressions 1. Cultural differences in emotion 2. Gender and emotion 3. Body language a. kinesics – study of the meaning of body movements, posture, hand gestures, and facial expressions; commonly called body language. b. emotional tone – underlying emotional state an individual is experiencing at any given moment. c. facial blend – a mix of two or more basic facial expressions. d. pleasantness-unpleasantness – as reflected by facial expressions, the degree to which a person is experiencing pleasure or displeasure. e. attention-rejection – as reflected by facial expressions, the degree of attention given to a person or object. f. activation – as reflected by facial expressions, the degree of arousal a person is experiencing. g. illustrators –gestures people use to illustrate what they are saying. h. emblems – gestures that have widely understood meanings within a particular culture. 6</p><p>XI. Theories of Emotion A. James-Lange theory – states that emotional feelings follow bodily arousal and come from awareness of such arousal.</p><p>B. Cannon-Bard theory – states that activity in the thalamus causes emotional feelings and bodily arousal to occur simultaneously.</p><p>C. Schacter’s cognitive theory – states that emotions occur when physical arousal is labeled or interpreted on the basis of experience and situational cues. 1. attribution – mental process of assigning causes to events. In emotion, the process of attributing arousal to a particular source.</p><p>D. Facial Feedback Hypothesis – states that sensations from facial expressions help define what emotion a person feels.</p><p>E. Contemporary Model of Emotion 1. emotional appraisal – evaluating the personal meaning of a stimulus or situation.</p><p>XII. Emotional Intelligence – emotional competence, including empathy, self-control, self-awareness, and other skills.</p><p>XIII. Triangular theory of love – Robert Sternberg’s theory that love is made up of intimacy, passion, and commitment. There are 7 “flavors” of love: nonlove, liking, romantic love, fatuous love, infatuation, and companionate love.</p>