Universität Osnabrück Fachbereich Kultur- und Geowissenschaften Fach Geschichte Politics, Migration and Minorities in Independent and Soviet Estonia, 1918-1998 Dissertation im Fach Geschichte zur Erlangung des Grades Dr. phil. vorgelegt von Andreas Demuth Graduiertenkolleg Migration im modernen Europa Institut für Migrationsforschung und Interkulturelle Studien (IMIS) Neuer Graben 19-21 49069 Osnabrück Betreuer: Prof. Dr. Klaus J. Bade, Osnabrück Prof. Dr. Gerhard Simon, Köln Juli 2000 ANDREAS DEMUTH ii POLITICS, MIGRATION AND MINORITIES IN ESTONIA, 1918-1998 iii Table of Contents Preface...............................................................................................................................................................vi Abbreviations...................................................................................................................................................vii ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................ VII 1 INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................3 1.1 CONCEPTUAL AND METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES ...............................................4 1.1.1 Conceptualising Migration ..................................................................5 1.1.1.1 Socio-Historical Migration Research....................................................................................5 1.1.1.2 A Model of Migration..........................................................................................................6 1.1.2 A Framework for Analysis.................................................................12 1.2 TERMINOLOGY AND SOURCES ......................................................................13 1.2.1 Terminology.......................................................................................13 1.2.1.1 Nationality, Ethnicity and Citizenship ..............................................................................13 1.2.1.2 Usage of Language, Individual and Place Names ................................................................13 1.2.2 Sources and Material.........................................................................14 1.2.2.1 Printed Material .................................................................................................................14 1.2.2.2 Data Use and Caveats: Ethnicity and Census Figures in the Soviet Union .......................16 1.3 POLITICS, MIGRATION AND MINORITIES IN INDEPENDENT AND SOVIET ESTONIA, 1918-1998..............................................................................................21 1.3.1 Interpretations of Soviet Migration...................................................21 1.3.2 Main Findings....................................................................................28 2 INDEPENDENT ESTONIA, 1918/20-1939/40...........................................32 2.1 POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTS................................................32 2.1.1 Establishing and Securing the Independent Republic of Estonia.......33 2.1.1.1 The Precursor to Statehood: The Province of Estonia, 1721-1917....................................33 2.1.1.2 The October Revolution and the Declaration of Independence, 1917-1920......................37 2.1.2 Domestic Politics Between Extreme Liberalism and Authoritarian Rule 42 2.1.2.1 Liberalism, 1920-1934........................................................................................................42 2.1.2.2 Authoritarianism, 1934-1939/40........................................................................................44 2.1.3 The Economy.....................................................................................46 2.2 DEMOGRAPHY, MIGRATION, AND SOCIO-CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS.........49 2.2.1 Demography, Migration, and Minorities ...........................................49 2.2.1.1 Migration and Demography ...............................................................................................49 2.2.1.2 Urbanisation and Settlement Structures .............................................................................57 2.2.2 Minorities and Minorities Policy........................................................60 2.2.3 Education and the Language Question..............................................66 2.3 THE MOLOTOV-RIBBENTROP PACT (MRP) AND THE UNDOING OF THE BALTIC STATES’ INDEPENDENCE, 1939-40..........................................................................68 3 THE STALIN ERA, 1940-1953: OCTROI OF THE SOVIET SYSTEM AND ONSET OF NON-ESTONIAN IN-MIGRATION ...................................75 3.1 POLITICS AND ECONOMY.............................................................................76 3.1.1 Forming the ESSR..............................................................................76 3.1.1.1 Imposing the Political System............................................................................................77 3.1.1.2 Anti-Soviet Resistance.......................................................................................................79 ANDREAS DEMUTH iv 3.1.2 Integrating Agriculture and Industry.................................................82 3.1.2.1 The Collectivisation of Agriculture....................................................................................82 3.1.2.2 The Nationalisation and Integration of Industry................................................................83 3.2 DEMOGRAPHIC CHANGES ............................................................................86 3.2.1 The Deportations of 1940-41 and 1949.............................................87 3.2.2 The First Phase of In-Migration........................................................88 3.2.2.1 Main Types and Backgrounds of Migrants.......................................................................89 3.2.2.2 Origins and Urbanisation of Migrants in Figures ...............................................................94 3.3 SOCIO-CULTURAL LIFE AND INTER-ETHNIC RELATIONS UNDER STALIN ......96 4 THE KHRUSHCHEV ERA, 1953-1964......................................................99 4.1 POLITICS AND ECONOMY...........................................................................100 4.1.1 The ‘Thaw’: 1953-1957 ...................................................................101 4.1.2 Control Reinforced, 1958/59-64 ......................................................104 4.2 DEMOGRAPHIC DEVELOPMENTS.................................................................107 4.2.1 Natural Development, Ethnic Distribution and the 1959 Population Census 108 4.2.1.1 Natural Development .......................................................................................................108 4.2.1.2 Ethnic Distribution and Settlement Structures.................................................................109 4.2.2 Migration and Demographic Changes, 1955-1965 .........................111 4.2.2.1 Labour Migration and its Economic Background.............................................................115 4.2.2.2 Other Migration ...............................................................................................................121 4.3 NATIONALITIES POLICY, SOCIETY, AND INTER-ETHNIC RELATIONS...........125 4.3.1 Nationalities, Education, and Language Policies............................126 4.3.1.1 The Thaw .........................................................................................................................126 4.3.1.2 After the Thaw.................................................................................................................129 4.3.2 ESSR Population Developments, Politics, and Inter-Ethnic Relations132 5 THE BREZHNEV ERA, 1964-1982, AND THE INTERLUDE, 1982-1985135 5.1 POLITICS AND ECONOMY...........................................................................136 5.1.1 Politics .............................................................................................137 5.1.1.1 Restoration, Stability and Standstill, 1964-82 .................................................................137 5.1.1.2 The Double Interlude: Andropov and Chernenko, 1982-1985 ........................................141 5.1.2 The Economy...................................................................................143 5.1.2.1 Overview ..........................................................................................................................143 5.1.2.2 Economy, Labour Market, and Socio-Economic Problems..............................................145 5.2 MIGRATION AND DEMOGRAPHIC DEVELOPMENTS......................................148 5.2.1 Natural Population Increase............................................................150 5.2.2 Intra-Soviet Migration with ESSR, 1966-1985................................154 5.2.2.1 Sending Areas and Changing Composition of Migrants..................................................156 5.2.2.2 Labour Migration, Urbanisation and Ethnic Distribution................................................159 5.3 NATIONALITIES POLICY, SOCIETY, AND INTER-ETHNIC RELATIONS ...........173 6 THE GORBACHEV ERA..........................................................................179 6.1 POLITICS AND ECONOMY...........................................................................182 6.1.1 Central Reform Efforts and Consequences .....................................183 6.1.1.1 Union-wide Developments, 1985-1988...........................................................................184