A Cross-Cultural Study Of Emotional Intelligence, Organizational Citizenship Behavior, And Leadership Effectiveness

1Relationship between Emotional Intelligence and Transformational Leadership: A Cross-Cultural Study M. Afzalur Rahim Center for Advanced Studies in Management 1574 Mallory Court Bowling Green, KY 42103, USA Phone/Fax: 270–782–2898/2601, Email: [email protected]Clement Psenicka Management Department Youngstown State University Youngstown, OH 44555 Phone: 330–757–8188, Email: [email protected]Sae-Yoon Oh Department of Public Administration Honam University 59-1 Seobong-Dong Gwangsan-Gu, Gwangiu-City, South Korea Phone/Fax: + 82-62-940-5243/5227, Email: [email protected]Panagiotis Polychroniou University of Ioannina 2, G. Seferi St. Agrinio, Greece Phone/Fax: 0030-26410-39523/39579, [email protected]Joao Ferreira Dias ISCTE - Portugal Edificio ISCTE (cacifo 238-B) Av. das Foras Armadas, 1649-026 LISBOA, Portugal Phone: +(351)938450825, Email: [email protected]Md. Sahidur Rahman Shameema Ferdausy University of Chittagong Department of Management Chittagong, BangladeshPhone/Fax: 880-31-716552/726310, Email: [email protected], [email protected]Running head: Social Competence, Emotional Intelligence, Transformational Leadership 2AbstractThis study investigated the relationship between emotional intelligence—empathy and social skills—and transformational leadership. Questionnaire data on emotional intelligence and transformational leadership for this study were collected in five countries (U.S., Greece,Portugal, South Korea, and Bangladesh) from observers (an MBA student and two of his/her colleagues who had the same supervisor, N = 685 triads). In other words, three observers rated their common supervisor on the independent and criterion variables and the scale for each variable was created by averaging responses to its items for each group (triad). Empathy was positively associated with transformational leadership in all the five countries. Social skills was positively associated with transformational leadership in the U.S., Greece, South Korea, andBangladesh, but not in Portugal. Overall, there were similarities in the results between the individualistic (U.S., Portugal, and Greece) and collectivistic (South Korea and Bangladesh) cultures. 3Literature in organizational behavior and industrial and organizational psychology generally acknowledge the inadequacy of intelligence as a predictor of leadership effectiveness. In reviewing the literature on intelligence and transformational leadership, Bass (2002) concluded that traditional conceptualization of intelligence is generally concerned with the analytical or academic aspect of intelligence, but an adequate conceptualization of this construct comprises other aspects, such as emotional and social intelligences, as well. Sternberg (2002) suggests, "the predictive value of intelligence may have been flagged in various studies because these studies examined and measured aspects of intelligence that, however effective they may be in predicting academic and certain other kinds of performance, are not effective predictors of leadership performance" (p. 9). He suggests that there are other dimensions of intelligencesocial intelligence, emotional intelligence, or practical intelligence or what scholars refer to as "street smarts"which indicates that an individual is not limited simply because he or she has a below average academic intelligence or IQ.Over the years many studies on intelligence focused mainly on the adaptive use of cognition, but in recent years theorists such as Gardner (1983, 1999) and Sternberg (1985, 2002) have suggested more encompassing approaches to conceptualizing intelligence. Although Gardner did not use the term emotional intelligence, his concepts of intra- and inter-personal intelligences provided the basis for the conceptualization of EQ. Whereas, intrapersonal intelligence is the ability to be aware of and regulate one's own emotions (feelings, moods, and desires), interpersonal intelligence is associated with one's ability to understand others’ emotions and to induce desirable responses in them. The present study used Gardner’s conceptualization of interpersonal intelligence. Goleman (2001) suggested that this intelligence is associated with social competencies, such as empathy and social skills. We selected empathy and social skills 4 components of EQ for the present study because we believed that (a) manifestations of empathy and social skills in an organizational context will have a significant influence on employees’ perceptions of their supervisor's transformational leadership and (b) no studies to our knowledge investigated the relationships between the two constructs in domestic or cross-cultural context.In his role as a consultant in organizations, Goleman (1998; see also Goleman, Boyatzis, &McKee, 2002) found that emotional intelligence is twice more important than technical skills andIQ for jobs at all levels. He also reported that emotional intelligence plays an increasingly important role at the highest levels of a company. When he compared "Star performers with average ones in senior leadership positions, nearly 90% of the difference in their profiles was attributable to emotional intelligence factors rather than cognitive abilities" (Goleman, 1998, p.108). We acknowledge that some social scientists may not consider this claim as scientific evidence.Studies on EQ in an organizational context are limited, but scholars and writers in management are beginning to emphasize the importance EQ on leadership effectiveness (Bass,2002; Goleman, 1998; Hesselbein, Goldsmith, & Beckhard, 1996; Megerian & Sosik, 1996;Morris & Feldman, 1996). These theoretical contributions suggest that some aspects of EQ may be associated with effective leadership. Sosik and Megerian (1999) suggest that an intrapersonal aspect of EQ, such as self-awareness, which involves a strong leader–follower emotional relationship, is positively associated with transformational leadership. Taking lead from these contributions, we hypothesize that interpersonal dimensions of EQ, such as empathy and social skills are associated with transformational leadership. In other words, leaders who possess empathy and social skills aspects of EQ are likely to exhibit behaviors associated with transformational leadership. 5Emotional intelligence refers to one's ability to be aware of one's own feelings, be aware of others' feelings, to differentiate among them, and to use the information to guide one's thinking and behavior (Salovey & Mayer, 1990). This definition consists of three categories of abilities: evaluation and expression of emotion, regulation of emotion, and using emotions in decision- making. Goleman (1998) provided a similar definition: "the capacity for organizing our own feelings and those of others, for motivating ourselves, and for managing emotions well in ourselves and in our relationships" (p. 317). These and other definitions by Bar-On (1997),Boyatzi (2001), and others are complimentary. It appears that EQ relates to a number of non- cognitive skills, abilities, or competencies that influence an individual's capacity to deal with environmental demands and pressures. The EQ construct was first discussed by Salovey andMayer (1990) and had its roots in Gardner’s (1983) concepts of intra- and inter-personal intelligences, and in Thorndike's (1920) concept of social intelligence.Emotional IntelligenceSeveral scholars use the term EQ to include almost everything but IQ: emotional awareness, accurate self-assessment, self-confidence, trustworthiness, conscientiousness, adaptability, innovation, and so on (Bar-On & Parker, 2000; Goleman, 1998), but this framework stretches the conceptualization of intelligence way beyond acceptable limits (Hedlund & Sternberg, 2000).As suggested by Salovey and Mayer (1994) and Mayer, Caruso, and Salovey (2000) there should be a more restrictive model of EQ based on ability and distinguished from personality. We do this by defining the two dimensions of interpersonal intelligence selected for the present study as follows:1. Empathy refers to one's ability of understanding others and taking active interest in them, recognizing and responding to changes in their emotional states, understanding their 6 feelings transmitted through verbal and nonverbal messages, to provide emotional support to people when needed, and to understand the links between their emotions and behavior.2. Social Skills is associated with one's ability of inducing desirable responses in others, dealing with problems without demeaning those who work with him or her, to not allow own or others' negative feelings to inhibit collaboration, and to negotiate and manage affective conflict with tack and diplomacy.Transformational LeadershipFollowing Burns (1978), Bass (1985; see also Bass & Avolino, 1993) proposed that transformational leadership is associated with distinct dimensions of intellectual stimulation(encouraging followers to question their own way of doing things and become innovative), individualized consideration (providing personal attention, empathy, and encouragement for self- development of followers), charisma or idealized influence (trust, respect, and pride stimulated by and emotional identification with the leader), and inspirational motivation (encouraging followers to improve their contribution by articulating a compelling vision). Leaders who possess interpersonal intelligence may be associated with transformational leadership for several reasons. Leaders who possess empathy aspect of EQ are likely to recognize followers' need, take active interest in them, and respond to changes in their emotional states. Empathy is likely to be associated with individualized consideration. Social skills aspect of EQ, which is associated with enabling followers to engage in desirable behaviors, is likely to be associated with intellectual stimulation. Employees are likely to respect and emotionally identify with a leader who is considerate and is willing to help employees to be effective and improve their job performance.Therefore, the social competence dimension of EQ is likely to be associated with leaders' charisma or idealized influence. 7Developed by Bass (1985), the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) is a widely used instrument to assess the three aspects of transformational leadership—charisma, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration. However, there has been lack of evidence of construct validity of the instrument (Tejeda, 2001). Carlessa's (1998) study indicated that there is little evidence to support that the MLQ measures three distinct transformational leader behaviors.In the present study, we conceptualize transformational leadership as a unidimensional construct consisting of the three types of interrelated behaviors. (As will be seen later, in the present study a factor analysis of the MLQ items resulted in a single factor.).On the basis of our theoretical discussion, we formulate the following hypotheses for the study:Hypothesis 1: Empathy is positively associated with transformational leadership.Hypothesis 2: Social skills is positively associated with transformational leadership.We also wanted to explore how these relationships differ between individualistic (U.S.,Greece, and Portugal) and collectivistic (China and Bangladesh) cultures?Davis, Stankov, and Roberts’ (1998, p. 1013) study indicates the potential dark side of popularizing a construct before it is carefully conceptualized and operationalized and rigorous empirical studies are completed. Self-report measures of EQ (e.g., Bar-On, 1997; Boyatzis &Goleman, 2001; Bernet, 1996; Cooper & Sawaf, 1997; Law, Wong, & Song, 2004; Mayer et al.,2000; Schutte et al., 1998) and criterion variables may have resulted in common method variance. This occurs when data are collected from the same respondents, with the same measures, and at the same time. The EQ instruments developed by Law, Wong, and Song and byMayer, Caruso, and Salovey are psychometrically sound which are likely to be resistant to common method variance (cf. Spector, 1987). Another issue is that in organizational studies, 8 supervisors are often asked to assess their own managerial skills, but studies by Kruger andDunning (1999) and Shipper and Dillard (2000) reported that unsuccessful supervisors overestimate their skills compared to successful supervisors. Also three studies reported that under-estimators of their managerial skills are likely to be more effective than over-estimators(Atwater & Yammarino, 1992; Church, 1997; Van Velsor, Taylor, & Leslie, 1993). As a result, if the supervisors are asked to self-assess their EQ, some of them will probably provide misleading information.The objective of the present study was to investigate the relationships of two dimensions of social competencies of EQ—empathy and social skills—to transformational leadership in a cross-cultural context. An attempt was made to overcome some of the limitations of the existing self-report measures of EQ by using a new measure which involved asking observers (e.g., MBA students and their colleagues) to assess their supervisor's EQ and transformational leadership.Cultural Differences Among the Five CountriesSince our study investigated the relationship between EQ and transformational leadership in five countries, it is appropriate to discuss cultural differences among these countries. Hofstede's study (1980) shows that the five countries differ greatly on the cultural dimension of individualism–collectivism. In individualistic cultures, individuals primarily look after their own and immediate family's interests (husband, wife, and children), but in collectivist cultures, individuals belong to one or more close groups created by birth and later events, from which they cannot separate themselves. "Overall, individualistic cultures (such as Australia and the UnitedStates) value individual goals over group goals, individual concerns over group concerns, and individual rights and needs over collective responsibilities and obligations. Collectivistic cultures(such as China, Japan, and Korea), in contrast, value group goals over individual goals, group 9 concerns over individual concerns, and collective needs over individual needs" (Ting-Toomey et al., 1991, p. 277). On the individualism–collectivism dimension, the United States is extremely individualistic among the 50 countries studied by Hofstede and Bond (1988). Greece andPortugal are moderately individualistic countries and the remaining two countries are collectivistic nations. Given this cultural difference among these countries, a central issue is whether managers in these countries significantly differ on the relationships between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership.Hofstede's other cultural dimensions are power distance (i.e., the extent to which the less powerful members of an organization believe and accept that power is unevenly distributed), uncertainty avoidance (i.e., the extent to which people avoid unclear or unpredictable situations), and masculinity (i.e., the extent to which there is sex role differentiation). The differences on these dimensions among the five countries were not very high.MethodSample and ProcedureData for this study were collected from 685 dyads (MBA students and their colleagues) in the U.S. (n = 128), Greece (n = 86), Portugal (n = 74), South Korea (n = 263), and Bangladesh (n= 134). The EQ data were collected from MBA students and their colleagues in order to make the samples from the five countries as comparable as possible.Average chronological age of the respondents in the five countries ranged between27.3135.19 (SD = 4.75–10.19). Their average full-time work experience with the present supervisors ranged between 2.73–4.74 (SD = 3.04–4.87) years. The percentage of male respondents in the five countries ranged between 68%–89%. 10MeasurementEmotional Intelligence. The two dimensions of supervisory EQ were measured with 12 items adopted from the EQ Index (EQI) (Rahim et al., 2002). These items were designed to measure subordinates' perceptions of their respective supervisors' empathy and social skills. TheEQI was designed on the basis of repeated feedback from respondents and faculty and an iterative process of exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses of various sets of items.Considerable attention was devoted to the study of published instruments on EQ. Initially an instrument was designed and filled out by MBA and undergraduate students (N = 90). After the students completed the questionnaire, the instructor initiated an item-by-item discussion.Critiques of the instrument were also received from four management professors. The items that were reported to be difficult, ambiguous, or inconsistent were either dropped or revised. A new item was added to compensate for the elimination of an item. Special attempts were made to make the items free from social desirability contamination. Four successive factor analyses were performed to select items for the EQI (Ns: organizational members = 65; employed management students = 365; Chamber of Commerce members = 220, MBA and employed management students = 423). After each factor analysis, the items that loaded less than .50 and/or loaded on an uninterpretable factor were dropped or rephrased. As a result of the above analysis, the EQI was developed that uses a 7–point Likert scale (7 = Strongly Agree . . . 1 = Strongly Disagree) for ranking each of the items and a higher score indicates a greater emotional intelligence of a supervisor. Sample items for the two dimensions are: “My supervisor understands the feelings transmitted through nonverbal messages,” “My supervisor understands the links between employees' emotions and what they do” (empathy) and “My supervisor confronts problems without demeaning those who work with him or her,” “My supervisor handles emotional 11 conflicts with tact and diplomacy” (social skills). The two subscales consisted of 6 items each.Transformational Leadership. This was measured with 12 items adapted from theMultifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) (Bass, 1985). The respondents were asked to rank each item on a 7–point box scale (7 = Strongly Agree . . . 1 = Strongly Disagree). The scale was computed by averaging the responses to the items. A higher score indicates greater transformational leadership. Sample items for this scale are: "In my mind, he/she is a symbol of success and accomplishment," (charisma) “My supervisor doesn't let rules stand in the way of solutions,” (intellectual stimulation) “My supervisor gives me reasons to believe in what I can do" (individualized consideration).Translation. Bilingual professors from the four countries outside the U.S. translated the two instruments first. Suggestions on the translated version were requested from a group of bilingual experts who translated these scales back to English. The final version was developed after accommodating their feedback. As a result of this translationback translation, the scales achieved the kind of linguistic equivalence suggested by Bhagat and McQuid (1982).Sample and ProcedureData on EQ and transformational leadership were collected with the EQI and MLQ from triads in each of the five countries. Each triad consisted of an MBA student and two of colleagues who had the same supervisor. The data for each triad were averaged. It is expected that this procedure will overcome the problems of common method biases (i.e., variance due to the measurement method rather than the constructs the measures represent) voiced by Podsakoff,Mackenzie, Lee, and Podsakoff (2003). 12Analysis and ResultsThe first part of the analysis was designed to test the psychometric properties of the EQI andMLQ. The second part of the analysis was designed to test the two study hypotheses.Factor AnalysisEQI. Exploratory factor analysis (principal component analysis and varimax rotation) on theEQI items supported the two independent dimensions of emotional intelligence. The internal consistency reliability coefficients of the two subscales of the EQI, as assessed with Cronbach , ranged between .56 and .95 (see Table 1). These coefficients in Bangladesh were relatively lower than other countries.Since the EQI is a new scale, we checked its test–retest reliability coefficients with anAmerican collegiate sample of 163 management students who had jobs, which were .87 and .91 for empathy and social skills, respectively. Items for the measurement of emotional intelligence may be susceptible to social desirability response bias. To check this, we computed correlations between the two subscales of EQI and Marlowe-Crown Social Desirability scale (Crown &Marlowe, 1990) in an American collegiate sample of 76 management students. The correlations were .06 and .08 for empathy and social skills, respectively, which were nonsignificant. So we concluded that the data from observers for the two subscales were not associated with social desirability responding.Table 1 presents the means, standard deviations, internal consistency reliability coefficients, and Pearson correlations between the subscales of EQI and MLQ.______Insert Table 1 about here ______13MLQ. We computed an exploratory factor analysis (principal component analysis and varimax rotation) on the 12 items of MLQ. Results confirmed a significant factor representing transformational leadership. The Cronbach s for this scale ranged between .63 and .95 in the five countries.Regression AnalysesWe computed five multiple regression analyses, one for each country. Each regression analysis was computed with the two subscales of the EQI as the independent variables and transformational leadership as the dependent variable. Table 2 shows the results.______Insert Table 2 about here ______Empathy was positively associated with transformational leadership in all the five countries that provided full support to Hypothesis 1. Social skills was positively associated with transformational leadership in the U.S., Greece, South Korea, and Bangladesh, but not inPortugal, which provided partial support to Hypothesis 2. Overall, we conclude that there are similarities in the relationships of empathy and social skills to transformational leadership between the individualistic and collectivistic cultures. The exception was the relationship between social skills and transformational leadership in Portugal where the triads did not perceive any association between their leaders’ social skills and transformational leadership. It is possible that a larger sample size would make this relationship significant.DiscussionThis was a preliminary attempt to investigate the relationship between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership in a cross-cultural context. The challenge was translating the measurement instruments in four languages and collecting data from 685 triads in 14 five countries.Results provided some evidence of convergent and criterion validities and reliabilities of the measure of emotional intelligence and transformational leadership. Results indicated how subordinates' perceptions of leader EQ are associated with transformational leadership behaviors in the five countries. The results were somewhat consistent across the five countries that provided partial support to Spector et al.’s (2002) conclusions that the findings from field studies in the U.S. are generalizable across cultures.Implications for ManagementThe implications of the study are that supervisors need to acquire and use their empathy and social skills competencies to enhance their own transformational leadership. Therefore, the challenge for a contemporary organization is to enhance the emotional intelligence of their managers. Appropriate interventions may be needed to enhance their social competencies that would involve education and specific job-related training (Cherniss & Adler, 2000; Goleman,1998). Managers should also be encouraged to enhance their skills through continuous self- learning. Goleman (1998) suggests that they need emotional competence training which should"focus on the competencies needed most for excellence in a given job or role" (p. 251)Organizations should provide positive reinforcements for learning and improving managers' essential emotional competencies needed for specific jobs. Recent literature shows that learning organizations are providing ample opportunities to managers for continuous learning that should help to improve their EQ.Education and training may be of limited value when it comes to improving supervisors' EQ.Organizations may have to adapt the policy of recruiting managers with vision and charisma who are likely to be high on EQ. There should also be appropriate changes in the organization design 15 that would require creating flatter, decentralized, and less complex structures. Also there should be appropriate changes in organizational culture that provides rewards for learning new competence—empathy and social skills—and continuous questioning and inquiry. These changes in the organization design, culture, and positive reinforcements will encourage managers to acquire emotional competencies needed for improving their job performance and effectiveness.Directions for Future ResearchFurther research is needed to enhance our understanding of the relationships of EQ to effectiveness of leader behaviors. Other criterion variables for future research include subordinates' learning and effectiveness, intent to leave a job, and organizational commitment.An important area of future research concerns carefully designing and evaluating the effects of training in EQ in enhancing the aforementioned criterion variables. Field experiments are particularly useful in evaluating the effects of EQ training on individual and organizational outcomes. There is also need for scenario-based and laboratory studies that control some of the extraneous variables to better understand the effects of supervisors' EQ. Also it will be useful to investigate the differences in the perceptions of subordinates regarding the performance of transformational leaders with low and high EQ.Strengths and LimitationsOne of the strengths of this study is that the independent and dependent variables were collected from separate respondents, which will overcome the problem of common method variance. The presence of common method variance may inflate correlations between independent and criterion variables. Limitations of this field study should be noted. Data were collected from convenience samples that might limit generalizability of the results. The analysis 16 suffers from the small sample sizes for the individual countries, but the results seem to support a somewhat consistent cross-country analysis.ReferencesAtwater, L. E., & Yammarino, E. J. (1992). 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Human ResourceManagement, 32, 249263. 21Table 1 Descriptive Statistics, Correlations Between EQ and Transformational Leadership, and Cronbach αs for VariablesPredictor variable U.S. Greece Portugal S. Korea Bangladesh Empathy r .94*** .65*** .90*** .77*** .72*** Cronbach α .88 .81 .92 .86 .60 Mean 4.00 3.13 3.46 3.28 4.39 SD 1.68 .74 1.43 1.13 .62 Social skills r .89*** .64*** .84*** .77*** .70*** Cronbach α .93 .84 .89 .82 .56 Mean 4.01 3.07 3.49 3.26 4.48 SD 1.80 .77 1.40 1.12 .60 Transformational leadership r 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 Cronbach α .92 .84 .95 .91 .63 Mean 3.99 2.92 3.45 3.30 4.32 SD 1.59 .57 1.32 1.06 .48Age (triad) Mean 27.31 32.48 34.11 35.19 33.05 SD 8.67 6.38 10.19 8.52 4.75 Work experience with present supervisor (in years) (triad) Mean 3.00 4.74 3.48 2.75 2.73 SD 4.56 3.04 3.40 5.87 3.72 N (triad) 52 86 74 263 134** p < .01. *** p < .001. (two-tailed) 22Table 2 Summary of Regression Analysis with the two EQI Subscales and Transformational Leadership in Each of the Five CountriesTransformational leadership Predictor All U.S Greece Portugal S. Korea Bangladesh variable β1 β1 β2 β3 β4 β5Empathy .50*** .58*** .37** .82*** .41*** .47*** Social skills .32** .16* .34* .09 .41*** .37*** R2 .62*** .52*** .46*** .81*** .63*** .60*** N (triads) 685 128 86 74 263 134*p < .05. ** p < .01. ***p < .001. 23Dr. Rahim is the Founding Editor of the International Journal of Organizational Analysis andInternational Journal of Conflict Management. He is the founder of the International Association for Conflict Management and International Conference on Advances in Management. He is aDistinguished University Professor at Western Kentucky University. Dr. Rahim is the author/co- author of 20 books and 170 articles, book chapters, case studies, and research instruments. His articles have been published, among others, in Academy of Management Journal, HumanRelations, International Journal of Conflict Management, International Journal ofOrganizational Analysis, Journal of Applied Psychology, Journal of Business Ethics, Journal ofHealth and Human Services Administration, Journal of Management, Journal of Small BusinessManagement, Journal of Social Psychology, Multivariate Behavioral Research, and Perceptual and Motor Skills. His current research interests are in the areas of cross-cultural emotional and social intelligence and creativity, organizational learning and innovation, conflict management, and organizational justice ([email protected]) 24Clement Psenicka is Professor of Management at Youngstown State University where his teaching duties include Operations Management, Management Science, and Quality Control. He received his DBA from Kent State University. His research interest includes the analysis of organizational conflict, power, and emotional intelligence as well as applications in operations management and management sciences. ([email protected]) 25Sae-Yoon Oh (Ph.D., Jeonnam National University, Korea) is Professor and Chair of theDepartment of Public Administration, Honam University, South Korea. His teaching and research interests are in employees’ and regulatory compliance to public policies, public policy evaluation, government regulation, research methodology, and public marketing. He has published studies in Current Topics in Management and in Korean periodicals. He is serving as chair of the Regulatory Commission of Gwangju Metropolitan City and the Advisory Committee of Gwangsan District Office, Gwangju-City, Korea. ([email protected]) 26Panagiotis Polychroniou has received a Ph.D. from the Athens University ofEconomics and Business. He is now working as Visiting Lecturer at University ofIoannina. His research interests include organizational behavior, general management and human resources. He has special research interest in conflict management and emotional intelligence. ([email protected]). 27João Ferreira Dias (PhD., ISCTE School of Management) is presently an Asociate Pofessor of Strategic Management at ISCTE. He is director of the MSc in Management offered jointly byISCTE (Portugal) and Fundação Getúlio Vargas (Brasil) and member of the board of theDepartment of Management. He is also research coordinator at ADETTI where he works in management simulators, system dynamics and strategic learning. [email protected]) 28Md. Sahidur Rahman is an Assistant Professor of Management at the University of Chittagong,Bangladesh. His research interests are in the areas of cross-cultural organizational justice, emotional intelligence, knowledge management, and consumerism in Bangladesh. His publications have appeared in the International Journal of Conflict Management, International Journal of Organizational Analysis,South Asian Journal of Management, Journal of Business Administration, and Journal of the Institute ofBangladesh Studies. ([email protected]) 29Shameema Ferdausy is an Assistant Professor of Management at the University of Chittagong,Bangladesh. Her research interests are in the areas of emotional intelligence, knowledgeManagement, leasing, and consumerism in Bangladesh. Her publications have appeared in theInternational Journal of Organizational Analysis, South Asian Journal of Management, Journal of Business Administration, and Journal of the Institute of Bangladesh Studies.([email protected])

A Cross-Cultural Study Of Emotional Intelligence, Organizational Citizenship Behavior, And Leadership Effectiveness

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