DIRECTIONS : INFLU­ The system of thinking, understanding, ENCE ON ESTABLISH­ organizing, and valuing places, posi­ tions, and directions is an essential part ING BEARING AND of culture. In other words, it is an SETTLEMENT "ethnogeography" or the indigenous cognition of geographical phenomena which include social values connected 1 Nid Hinshiranan and to spatial organization and directions. Narum on ArunotaF Nowadays, it may be difficult to con­ ceive of cardinal points as something Abstract cultural because there exists an interna­ tional standard for directions which is People in different cultures have their accepted world-wide. Different styles own unique ways of constructing bear­ of compasses have been invented, and ing points and directions to orient them­ the science of cartography and standard­ selves with their environment and to ized methods ofmaking maps have been give meaning to the world around them. developed.Every standard map is Along with this cognition process, there marked to indicate north so that com­ are social values connected to directions mon understanding can be established and spatial organization. This article in reading and interpreting a map.This explores the notions of directions <md "standard" is actually a part of western reference points and how they influence Culture.Claudius Ptolemy (C 87-150 the orientation of architectural structures A.D.) Greek geographer and astronomer and settlement in different cultures. was the first to draft a world map in the second century. Introduction A map is a symbolic form representing land and water. Modem cartography or Cardinal points and other reference the art and science of making maps points are all culturaiiy constructed. originates from a western cognitive sys­ They are the product of cognition pro­ tem. Despite this, maps have gained cess which stems from human actions worldwide acceptance as have other and reactions to the spatial environment. symbolic constructions such as cardinal points and imaginary lines like longi­ tude, latitude, the meridian, the equator, 1 Former Director General, Department of and the international date line. Town and Country Planning, Ministry of Interior; Consultative Committee Member, The indigenous map making system Society for Conservation of National Trea­ without influence from western cartog­ sure and Environment (SCONE) raphy is generally without reference 2 Researcher, Social Research Institute, points. One local Thai map found intact Chulalongkom University. is a military route map called "The Stra­ tegic Map in the Reign of King Downloaded from Brill.com09/30/2021 12:40:51PM via free access MA NUSYA: Journal ofHumaniti es(Special Issue. No.3. 2002) Ramathibhodi I" The map is a tradi­ tional map drafted from geographical cognition and depicting topographic fea­ tures such as rivers, mountains, forests, natural obstacles, fortresses, barracks, towns, and villages. The distance is re­ flected in travelling time, such as I day's travel or 3 nights' travel, instead of dis­ 3 4 tance such as wa or yote • In many traditional societies, travel is considered an inseparable dimension ofdistance. In Thailand, distance is sometimes mea­ Figure I: Strategic map drafted in the reign sured by time, as in the sayings of King Ramathibhodi I, depicting topo­ "-i'-r~t l!tJ'Ii'1 11~6 ~ " (the time needed for rice graphic features such as rivers, mountains, to boil) " -i'11flo111lJmmn,n" (the time to forests, natural obstacles, fortresses, bar­ racks, towns, and villages. chew a betel nut to pieces) and " -i'1u~ u" (the time for a short run or in the nick of Another form of ethnogeography is the time). beliefs and practices of Feng Shui. Lit­ erally "Feng Shui'' means wind and The strategic map mentioned above is water. It is a principle of spatial arrange­ the product of the local cognition sys­ ment and allocation in ham1ony with tem without any influence from west­ nature. It is believed that appropriate ern cartographic knowledge. It was space arrangement in accordance with drawn during the reign of King Rama I natural power will bring happiness, of Bangkok but completed during the peace, and prosperity to those living or reign of King Rama III of Bangkok working there. Nowadays, the principle (Royal Thai Survey Department of Feng Shui has been developed and 1884: I). At the time, the use of maps universalized. There are institutes and was limited to a specific circle of trav­ even universities which teach Feng Shui elers, navigators or sailors, warriors, and and geomancy as part of their curricu­ nobles. Common people had a mental lum. map as a foundation for their daily func­ tioning. A type of map of interest to Experts on Feng Shui are called Feng common people was a treasure log, but Shui Masters, Geomants, Geomancers, unlike most maps which are drafted for or Spititual Ecologists. From observa­ easy reading so that a person can under­ tion and calculation, these experts give stand and get to a specific place, a trea­ advice on spatial arrangement; site se­ sure log is encrypted and encoded. A lection for a home or village; planning person needs to interpret and decode it and orienting houses, offices or build­ in order to find the hidden treasure. ings, etc. Particular attention is focused 3 Traditional Thai measurement of 4 Traditional Thai measurement of distance, equal to 2 meters. distance, equal to 16 kilometers. 2 Downloaded from Brill.com09/30/2021 12:40:51PM via free access Directions: Influence on Establishing Bearing and Settlement on orientation, landscaping, and auspi­ patterns in between those islands. This cious timing of activities. Even for the map or "stick chart" was made with dead, it is necessary to select appropri­ bamboo strips, seashells, and cords. It ate grave sites so that they may rest was both a mnemonic device and an peacefuily in harmony with natural accurate navigational tool traditionally powers. used on several islands in Micronesia. Direction and Reference Points Insects and other animals such as Mon­ arch butterflies, migratory birds, and salmon migrate a long distance using only natural instinct. Humans do not have this instinct, or at least it is not as well-developed as in these animals. Figure 2: Micronesian stick chart showing Those who get lost in the forest or in current patterns and islands. the desert usually end up walking in a circle. Therefore, a person who has a Ancient navigators depended on wind "good sense of direction" is a person power to propel their vessels. Thus, they with keen observation skills, able to rec­ were very knowledgeable about wind ognize land-marks and orient him/her­ direction and seasonal change. In sev­ self with ease. eral places, the names of the wind de­ rive from their original direction. For Humans need to identify "bearing" in example, people in Malaysia and south­ the environment or surrounding in or­ ern Thailand call the wind from the der to travel or navigate. Ocean navi­ north "uttara" (Pali for north). The wind gation during the pre-compass era re­ from the south is called "selatan" (mean­ quired great observation skills. Celes­ ing south), and the wind from the west tial navigators sailed the vast oceans is called "phrad" (phrad or barat means with their knowledge of celestial bod­ west) (Suthiwong 1986:3124-25). ies. Navigators needed to be knowl­ edgeable and have keen observation Nowadays, navigation depends on mod­ skills on "way-finding." Waves and ern technology. There are modern in­ current patterns, bird and fish behavior, struments like compasses, radar, and humidity in the air, were all clues which Global Positioning System or GPS navigators used to reach their destina­ which is now very small and portable. tion. People can carry this GPS anywhere they go so that they always know their Navigators who sailed to different is­ position through satellite signal. With lands using the maritime skills of rec­ the use of this advanced technology, ognizing ocean current pattern some­ modern navigators neglect knowledge times made a "map" showing the posi- of their forefathers' way-finding and tion of islands and the current and wave become totally dependent on these new 3 Downloaded from Brill.com09/30/2021 12:40:51PM via free access MANUSYA: Journal ofHumanities(Special Issue. No.3. 2002) navigational tools. These techniques require two major qualifications: observation and memory. Traditional people who are skillful trav­ elers include the Inuit who traverse arc­ Nevertheless, a number of the Inuit have tic ice fields in search of polar bears settled down permanently and discarded seals, and fish. The Inuit live in the tun­ their traditional nomadic life. The tra­ dra zone covered with snow and ice. ditional skills have been neglected. Inuit There are practically no tracks or bear­ children go to school and become part ing to recognize as reference points. of an urbanized population. After the Furthermore, landscape is ever chang­ change in their way of life, it has been ing due to seasonal change and snow­ found that myopia among Inuit children storm. The Inuit have to seek tracks on is on the rise. This may be partly due to seemingly trackless land, search for pat­ visual strain; instead of looking at ob­ terns on the land with seemingly no pat­ jects in the distance, children are more tern. Life on the ice field requires sharp focused on shorter distance objects. observation skills and accurate memory This degraded eyesight may also be due of the landscape. to a change in diet which causes malnu­ trition for the development of eyesight. Traditionally, Inuit travel is not mea­ sured in kilometers or miles but by over­ Reference points using cardinal direc­ night rests along the way. Thus the Inuit tions (north, south, east, and west) may talk about "sleeps" as a measurement of have less meaning for people in several distance, the same cognitive system as cultures, especially those residing on an found in the Thai strategic map men­ island.