<p> 1968-1980, Nixon to Carter – Ch. 29, “Shaken to the Roots,” pgs. 769-789</p><p>Overall main idea: The turbulence of the late 1960s led to the end of the Vietnam War and the election of Republican Richard Nixon, whose corruption and resignation led to the Presidency of Jimmy Carter, who continued to struggle with Cold War foreign policy.</p><p>Cities Under Stress Main idea: The perception of American cities turned to one of violence and squalor in the 1960s-1970s.</p><p>Diagnosing an Urban Crisis Main idea: During the 1960s-1970s, urban problems greatly increased with racism, ghettos, poverty, crime, drugs, and decaying infrastructure. Much of America’s poor was concentrated in cities by the 1960s Many African-Americans continued to migrate to cities during and after World War II; in 1940, more blacks lived in rural than urban areas, but by 1970 it was the opposite Blacks were limited by racist restrictions on housing (redlining), schooling, and unionized jobs with benefits; they lived in ghettos in inner cities Cities became increasingly poorer; crime, handguns, and drugs spread; infrastructure (streets, buildings, utilities, etc.) that were built many years prior were wearing out and not updated; taxes were higher in cities than suburbs</p><p>Racial Rioting Main idea: African-American and other minority discontent led to race riots in American cities. African-Americans and Hispanics who rioted in the mid-1960s were fed up with racism and conditions in ghettos “Long hot summers” – racial riots that erupted in the mid-1960s, often in the summer Watts Riot – Watts was a poor ghetto neighborhood in Los Angeles, 1965 Often the riots targeted white businesses and institutions that discriminated and exploited blacks; rioters destroyed property, burned buildings, attacked whites and police officers, stole Politicians often blamed the riots on “outside agitators” and “troublemakers” but almost all rioters were actually disgruntled young African American residents</p><p>Minority Separatism Main idea: Minorities formed separatist movements in the 1960s in response to continued problems with assimilating into white American society. Black Power – a phrase that means different things to different people; at its basic level, it’s simply black pride; it can also mean black nationalism and separation from white society; black control of their own communities and politics Nation of Islam – organization that grew in the 1960s; believed in a form of Islam and black power; aka “black Muslims” Malcolm X – spokesman and a leader in the Nation of Islam, often considered the counterpoint to Martin Luther King; changed his last name from Little to “X” because Little was his “slave name” given to him by white society; believed in black power and black nationalism and achievement of rights “by any means necessary”; later visited Mecca, converted to true Islam and changed his views to more conciliatory attitude toward whites and other civil rights organizations; murdered by black Muslims in 1965, though allegations of conspiracy with FBI continue Black Panthers – late 1960s organization based on Malcolm X’s views, Black Nationalism and Marxist revolution; pushed for community self-help, police watch, and gun rights; Huey Newton was imprisoned, Eldridge Cleaver fled, and Fred Hampton was murdered by FBI and police in Chicago Brown Power – Hispanic movement similar to black power, but mostly expressed through Cesar Chavez and UFW United Farm Workers – basically a union of farmworkers in the southwest United States, mostly Hispanic, organized and led by Cesar Chavez; UFW demanded better wages and safer conditions, using boycotts, strikes, and organization, but achieved little success Red Power – movement for Native American rights in the late 1960s-1970s, including the American Indian Movement (AIM)</p><p>Suburban Independence Main idea: Suburbs grew larger and more powerful in the 1960s-1970s. By 1970, more Americans lived in suburbs than central cities, small towns, or rural areas; new jobs in suburbs increased while jobs in cities decreased; facilities and companies in suburbs also increased Baker v. Carr – allowed the adjustment of the apportionment of representatives in a manner that gave suburbs more political power Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education 1971 – Supreme Court decision that upheld cross-city busing to achieve racial integration of public schools; met with criticism and resentment from suburban white families; sometimes white families would move further out from the city to escape the school district or create their own, actually increasing segregation</p><p>The Year of the Gun, 1968 Main idea: “In 1968, mainstream American turned against the war in Vietnam, student protest and youth counter-culture turned ugly, and political consensus shattered.”</p><p>The Tet Offensive Main idea: The Tet Offensive by the Viet Cong convinced Americans that the Vietnam War was not going well and unwinnable. More and more Americans were growing dissatisfied with the Vietnam War Tet Offensive – massive Viet Cong attack against South Vietnamese cities in 1968; though it was a major defeat for the Viet Cong, it affected Americans by showing that the Viet Cong was overall still very capable of fighting and the war wasn’t close to finished yet Television and other media showed direct images of the brutality of the war, influencing many Americans against the war (notice how we don’t see much of this on TV nowadays—the government has learned its lesson) US military called for 200,000 more troops to fight in the war, but the president’s advisers said the war was unwinnable</p><p>LBJ’s Exit Main idea: In the wake of continuing Vietnam problems and increased popularity of other candidates, Johnson did not run for re-election in 1968. Eugene McCarthy ran against Johnson and won a large majority in one of the first primaries; he was popular especially among anti-war college students Robert Kennedy (JFK’s younger brother and former attorney general) also entered the race against Johnson Johnson felt overwhelmed and unable to fix the Vietnam problem, so he decided not to run for re-election and dropped out of the race; he tried to save his Great Society programs</p><p>Red Spring Main idea: In spring of 1968 student protests against Communism and university policies erupted across the U.S. and Europe. “Prague Spring” – an idea of Eastern European students that the spring of 1968 would bring about discussion of and reforms of democracy inside the Soviets’ iron curtain; crushed by Soviet tanks and troops – Red Spring Protests erupted across Europe in response to Red Spring and the Vietnam War, especially in Paris SDS protested Columbia University’s policies for a week in April 1968 before being evicted by police</p><p>Violence and Politics Main idea: In wake of assassinations and protest violence, Richard Nixon won the presidential election of 1968. Dr. King was assassinated 4/4/1968 by James Earl Ray in Memphis, TN; riots erupted in over a hundred cities across the U.S.; debate continues today on government involvement in the assassination Robert Kennedy was assassinated two months later by Sirhan Sirhan, an Arab nationalist and opponent of Kennedy’s pro-Israel views Democratic National Convention in Chicago, 1968 – SDS, experienced peace activists, and Yippies met in a park to march on the convention in protest of the war and the Democratic Party, which they expected to nominate Humphrey; violence broke out as Chicago police beat protestors and fired tear gas and protestors fought back; many cried “The whole world is watching!” Yippies – members of the informal Youth International Party who were anti-establishment and anti-authoritarian almost to the point of anarchy; very dramatic and theatrical in their protests; included the infamous Abbie Hoffman Republican Richard Nixon won the presidential election of 1968, defeating Democrat Hubert Humphrey (Johnson’s VP) and independent George Wallace (AL governor, working-class, states rights and segregationist)</p><p>Nixon and Watergate Main idea: Richard Nixon had lost numerous political races before winning the presidency and eventually losing it also. Getting Out of Vietnam Main idea: Amid public outcry and criticism, President Nixon struggled to pull the U.S. out of Vietnam. By 1969, protest against the war was at its highest, even among soldiers actually in the war, who lost discipline, took drugs, and sometimes killed their own officers Nixon claimed that he acted on the wishes of the “silent majority” – those non-radical Americans who still supported the war and conservative policies but weren’t involved in protests and demonstrations The New Left liberals were split into factions, including the Weathermen (later the Weather Underground), a radical organization who used terrorist tactics and declared war on the U.S. government in 1970; they split from the SDS Nixon Doctrine – the policy that the U.S. would gradually leave Vietnam but in the process help Asian non- Communist governments to support themselves Nixon authorized a “secret war” by invading Cambodia to attack Vietnamese Communist bases in 1970; Americans protested; students at Kent State University were shot by National Guardsmen; Congress repealed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution Most U.S. troops had been pulled out by 1972 and a ceasefire was declared in 1973</p><p>Nixon and the Wider World Main idea: Nixon’s foreign policy outside of Vietnam was decreasing tensions with Communist countries, known as détente. Nixon tried to distract Americans from Vietnam with other, more successful foreign policy U.S. landed on the moon in 1969; Neil Armstrong was the first man to walk on the moon Henry Kissinger – Nixon’s Secretary of State, influential in foreign affairs Détente – the policy of reducing tension and restrictions against Communist countries: Ping pong diplomacy – China allowed U.S. table tennis players to visit China, leading to Nixon’s visit and meeting with Mao Zedong, the Communist leader of China Chinese and Soviets eased trade restrictions SALT – Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty – treaty signed by US and USSR slightly reducing nuclear arms race</p><p>Courting Middle America Main idea: Nixon’s domestic policies were designed to win reelection in 1972 by courting suburbs and white Southerners. “Middle American” support – those middle-class voters in the suburbs and the white South Nixon declared the “urban crisis” over and shut down Johnson’s Great Society; instead he directed Federal funds to his New Federalism project, which basically gave more power and money to local and state governments Southern strategy – Nixon’s attempts to pull white Southerners to the Republican party; he appointed southerners to government positions, supported local and states’ rights, and tried to move cautiously in school desegregation</p><p>Oil, OPEC, and Stagflation Main idea: The U.S. struggled with stagflation and an OPEC-created oil shortage in the 1970s, leading many Americans to adopt a more economical lifestyle. Inflation was a problem in the late1960s and 1970s Energy prices (especially oil-related) became much more expensive as oil became scarce; Arab nations imposed an embargo on shipping oil to the U.S. for their support of Israel in continuing problems in the “Middle East” – 1973-1974 When the embargo was lifted, OPEC emerged as a challenge to Western dominance of world economics – Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries In response, Americans lived more economically (woe is me!) – turned off electricity when it was unnecessary, enforced speed limits, established standards for fuel economy in cars By 1975, the U.S. no longer dominated economy by itself; examples were Japan and Germany Stagflation – described the economic conditions of inflation, unemployment, and slow (stagnant) economic growth in the 1970s that few economists had predicted or could explain</p><p>Americans as Environmentalists Main idea: The environmental movement of the U.S. emerged in the 1970s as a result of Silent Spring and media awareness. Silent Spring – a book by Rachel Carson in 1962 that described a future where Spring was silent because all of the birds have died from pesticide poisoning; led to growing environmental movement; the pesticide DDT was banned as a result Other environmental problems included oil spills, forest fires, polluted water sources, continued industrial smog, etc.; also, the first photo of Earth from space was taken in 1968 Earth Day was established on April 22, 1970 as a teach-in to inspire awareness and appreciation of Earth’s environment The Nixon administration actually passed many laws protecting the environment, including clear air and water laws, protecting against hazardous waste, and establishing endangered species; most important, though, was the creation of the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) to enforce environmental laws and manage environmental protection</p><p>From Dirty Tricks to Watergate Main idea: The Nixon administration was plagued by corruption that eventually led to Nixon’s downfall and resignation in 1974. “Dirty tricks” and “Tricky Dick” – terms for Nixon’s dishonesty to achieve political gain Nixon compiled a list of journalists and politicians that opposed him and a committee who was responsible for embarrass and discredit them as well as prevent leaks of information CREEP – Committee to Re-Elect the President – raised money and created plans to boost Nixon’s power and undermine the opposition Watergate Scandal – the scandal that uncovered Nixon’s shady political dirty tricks and eventually forced him to resign; Watergate Complex was an apartment-hotel-office complex where the Democratic National Committee was headquartered; in 1972 burglars using CREEP funds and with Nixon’s knowledge were caught breaking into Watergate; Nixon tried to cover it up and used bribes, which worked in the short term Nixon easily defeated George McGovern for president in 1972; George Wallace was shot, taking him out of the race After the election, the burglars went to trial and with the help of the Washington Post newspaper and anonymous sources, more and more info about the government’s involvement began to leak; Nixon continued to claim innocence Watergate Tapes – audio recordings made by Nixon of his White House conversations which were used to convict his key associates in the scandal and which confirmed his involvement Nixon resigned from the presidency on Aug. 9 before impeachment articles were confirmed by Congress Nixon was very ambitious, so much that he broke then law, then broke the law again to cover it up; he probably didn’t need to after all as he was most likely going to win the 1972 election anyway; Watergate is an example of checks and balances in the Federal government to control a President who was trying to become too powerful</p><p>The Ford Footnote Main idea: Gerald Ford’s presidency after Nixon was mostly insignificant as Cold War détente continued and the economy slid into a recession. Ford controversially pardoned Nixon for “any and all crimes” committed; his approval rating immediately plummeted Détente continued as Eastern and Western countries increased commerce and more friendly relations Recession hit: unemployment went above 10% and inflation continued Jimmy Carter ran as a New Deal-style Southern Democrat that ignored race-baiting in the Wallace-style; he was the governor of Georgia and formerly a peanut farmer; defeated Ford in the 1976 election</p><p>Jimmy Carter: Idealism and Frustration in the White House Main idea: Though Carter avoided insider corruption in Washington, he lacked the insider experience to resolve political deadlock.</p><p>Carter, Energy, and the Economy Main idea: Carter was inexperienced in Federal domestic politics and was forced to deal with a struggling economy. Low-key and personable in the style of Jefferson Broke problems apart analytically like an engineer but was inexperienced in how Washington worked Another recession hit in 1978, as well as inflation; as an economic conservative he cut federal spending, which made unemployment worse and alienated Great Society/New Deal democrats</p><p>Closed Factories and Failing Farms Main idea: Carter proposed a comprehensive energy policy to deal with economic problems of the late 1970s. Mechanized industrial productivity went up and the expense of jobs; many plants and factory-based cities closed; the NE and Midwest became known as the “Rustbelt” because so many factories were shut down and rusting; OPEC raised energy prices again Carter’s energy policy – pushed for personal energy conservation among Americans; created the Department of Energy; encouraged alternative energy sources, including shale, solar, and wind power; public outcry blocked much nuclear development however Carter lost popularity in 1979 as some critics felt he was not capable and experienced enough</p><p>Building a Cooperative World Main idea: Carter succeeded at negotiating peace and human rights in his foreign policy. Carter administration criticized and withheld aid from countries with human rights abuses, including the Soviet Union, South Africa, Nicaragua, etc. Camp David Agreement – the triumph of Carter’s presidency, he helped engineer a peace agreement between Israel and Egypt, its most powerful Arab enemy, at Camp David (the president’s personal retreat) in 1979</p><p>New Crises Abroad Main idea: Carter’s foreign policy struggled against Cold War nuclear buildup and the Iran hostage crisis. Carter attempted to continue SALT II (nuclear arms reduction) negotiations, but opponents were afraid of a Soviet first strike Soviet invasion of Afghanistan – in 1979, U.S. supported Muslim rebels (including a young Osama bin Laden) in Afghanistan that were fighting against the Communist government; the Soviets invaded to protect the Communist government but were mired there for 10 years without success—the USSR’s Vietnam Iranian Revolution – 1979, Muslim fundamentalists and other Iranians overthrew the Shah, the dictator/monarch of Iran who was supported by the U.S. for being anti-Communist; the Ayatollah was the anti-American leader of the new government Iran hostage crisis – when the US gave the Shah medical aid, angry Iranians stormed the U.S. embassy and took 60 Americans hostage in exchange for the Shah; Carter attempted an airborne invasion but embarrassingly failed; over a year later, an agreement was finally reached and the hostages were freed Iran hostage crisis was like Carter’s version of Vietnam, even though it was previous presidents’ policies that had set up the situation; though Carter had engineered successful peace and human rights policies earlier, the Iran crisis ruined his foreign policy credibility</p><p>Overall main idea: The turbulence of the late 1960s led to the end of the Vietnam War and the election of Republican Richard Nixon, whose corruption and resignation led to the Presidency of Jimmy Carter, who continued to struggle with Cold War foreign policy.</p><p>SFI Terms: “Long hot summers” – race riots Black Power Nation of Islam Malcolm X Cesar Chavez and United Farm Workers (UFW) 1968: Tet Offensive Dr. King assassination Robert Kennedy assassination Democratic National Convention protests, Chicago Yippies Richard Nixon Silent Majority George Wallace Kent State University shooting Moon landing – Apollo 11 Détente SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty) OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) Stagflation Silent Spring EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) Watergate scandal Gerald Ford Jimmy Carter Camp David Agreement Iran hostage crisis</p>