Overall, This Looks Very Close to Being Ready

Support and Adolescent Social Behavior 1Predictions from Maternal Supportive Behavior To Adolescent Social BehaviorL. Wrenn ThompsonDistinguished Majors ThesisUniversity of VirginiaMay, 2002Advisor: Joseph P. AllenSecond Reader: Dick ReppucciRunning Head: SUPPORT AND ADOLESCENT SOCIAL BEHAVIOR Support and Adolescent Social Behavior 2AbstractThis study examined the relationship between maternal supportive behaviors and adolescent social behaviors. The study's sample was composed of 174 adolescents (83 males and 91 females) and their mothers. Observational data were collected to assess maternal supportive behaviors. Self-report data from a close friend of the adolescent were collected to assess the adolescent's social behavior. Results showed that high levels of maternal supportive behavior (in the form of adolescent autonomy and relational warmth) were related to decreasing levels of adolescent aggression and delinquency and improvements to the adolescent's conflict resolution skills over a one-year period. Interpretations of findings and proposals for future research are discussed. Support and Adolescent Social Behavior 3Parental behavior can affect adolescent development (Allen & Land, 1999). Parental behavior may affect the adolescent not only in terms of his or her relationship with parents, but with peers as well. Adolescents who have a more stable and nurturing relationship with their parents tend to have similar relationships with peers (Eccles, Early, Frasier, Belansky, & McCarthy, 1997; Shulman, Collins, & Dital, 1993; Sroufe, Egeland, & Carlson, 1999). At this time, there is no research that investigates whether and which of parents’ specific supportive behaviors may influence positive adolescent development with peers. This study looks at specific parental activities during supportive interactions and the behaviors’ relationships with adolescent socialization. While studying the specific behaviors of parents (primarily mothers) during conflictual interactions with their adolescents is beneficial to investigation, there is much to be learned from support-seeking interactions. The supportive behaviors exemplified by mothers may enhance what psychologists know about adolescent development in several ways. First, the overall quality of a supportive and helpful interaction acts as a window into the details of how much the mother may care about her adolescent and the issues facing him or her. The support the mother shows to her adolescent may enhance aspects of the adolescent's personality and view of him or herself that may not be open to measurement during interactions regarding an area of conflict (i.e. feelings of global self worth, confidence levels). By examining the relationship between maternal and adolescent behaviors, finding links between adolescents and their behaviors with peers is also possible. This may be especially useful when attempting to find relationships between mother-adolescent and adolescent-peer relationships. Researching supportive interactions that might aid adolescent development helps further scientific knowledge about how Support and Adolescent Social Behavior 4 adolescents develop in relationships and how parents contribute to adolescent behavior development.In conceptualizing parental behaviors during supportive interactions with adolescents, two major categories form: autonomy and relatedness. Throughout adolescence, degrees of autonomy and relatedness can have a large effect on the kind of relationship the teen has with his or her parents. The development of these relational attributes is one of the largest challenges the changing parent-adolescent relationship faces (Allen, Hauser, Bell, & O'Connor, 1994; Connolly & Goldberg, 1999). While creating this supportive relationship, parents who foster adolescent autonomy will model behaviors to the adolescent that independence is acceptable and encouraged (Eccles et al., 1997; Shulman, et. al., 1993; Sroufe et al., 1999). Research has also shown that a sense of adolescent relatedness with parents can be recreated with peers (Allen, Moore, & Kuperminc, 1997). Qualities of autonomy and relatedness in relationships between an adolescent and his or her parents appear related to the kinds of behaviors and decisions the adolescent may later make (Allen, et al., 1994; Collins, 1990; Eccles et al., 1997; Garrison, 2000; Lamborn & Steinberg, 1993). Research has found that when parents are supportive of their adolescents’ drive to be more autonomous, the adolescent’s behavior is more likely to be socially desirable and less likely to be conflictual (Allen, Hauser O'Connor, & Bell, in press; Allen, Hauser, O'Connor, Bell,Eickholt, 1996). What is unclear is what maternal behaviors foster an autonomous relationship and how aspects of relatedness affect adolescent-peer relationships. The question at this point is to determine how autonomy and relatedness are expressed in terms of supportive behavior and how these behaviors relate to adolescent social development with peers. Support and Adolescent Social Behavior 5The Importance of Developing an Autonomous Relationship with ParentsThe ability for adolescents to acquire a sense of autonomy away from their parents is essential in gaining decision-making experience for the future (Collins, 1990; Grotevant & Cooper, 1985; Hill & Holmbeck, 1986; Steinberg, 1990). Being able to approach parents with problems that need resolution enables adolescents to be more assertive. When the adolescent is able to affirm his or her own ideas to parents without fear of criticism or rejection, the teen is able to feel confident in the decisions he or she makes. Kobak, Cole, Ferenz-Gillies, and Fleming (1993) found that adolescents who were supported and attended to by their mothers maintained a balanced assertiveness with them in problem solving discussions. This ability to engage in a problem-solving scenario helps prepare the adolescent for future interactions outside of the home. The mother's involvement in such a situation encourages the adolescent to be assertive and practice problem-solving skills. This study attempts to find principal maternal behaviors that are intrinsic to autonomous adolescent behavior and foster decreasing levels of delinquency and aggressive social functioning. Adolescent Delinquent Behaviors Often, adolescents do not want their parents to tell them what to do when they approach them for support. Rather, they want the decisions they have already made reinforced and validated. Additionally, these adolescents may want to just tell their parents what they think about a problem and be encouraged in their own ideas. Cernkovich and Giordano (1987) found that parents who listened and cared about their adolescent’s opinions had teens who participated in fewer acts of delinquency. Increased amounts of disagreement were positively related to Support and Adolescent Social Behavior 6 increased delinquency. Adolescents who experienced larger amounts of disagreement and discord with parents may not have been given the opportunity to implement their own problem solving strategies. This lack of experience in problem solving strategizing may have made participation in delinquent activities more likely. Alternatively, maternal dominance and punitive parenting can be harmful when the adolescent is trying to establish a sense of autonomy. When such a situation occurs, the adolescent is more likely to exhibit problem behavior (Baldwin, Baldwin, Kasser, Zax, Saineroff, and Seiffer, 1989). Delinquency may become a mechanism for the adolescent to establish control in some aspect of his or her life (by choosing delinquent behavior), as well as an avenue to release anger and frustration regarding the lack of autonomy he or she has.What remains unanswered is what the mother is specifically doing during these interactions that could be pushing her adolescent towards or away from acts of violence and delinquency. In this study, it is hoped that a clearer understanding of maternal behaviors that produce such reactions will be revealed. It is expected that adolescents who lack autonomy when asking their mothers for support (i.e. when the mother dominates the interaction) will become more delinquent and aggressive over time.Social FunctioningWhen the adolescent is able to express a need for autonomy and the mother is supportive of the power transfer, the adolescent is more likely to behave in a socially appropriate and mature way outside of the dyad (McElhaney and Allen, 2001). This positive transition of decision making power is a good predictor of adolescent-peer relationship quality in the future. Allen, McElhaney, and Bell (2000) found that a support seeking interaction between an autonomous teen and parent predicted positive social outcomes with peers two years later. If an Support and Adolescent Social Behavior 7 adolescent feels supported by his or her mother and is empowered to be autonomous, he or she may have more confidence in problem solving abilities, which may help him or her make better decisions. This may help the adolescent feel like he or she is in control of his or her life, as the adolescent is able to see the impact their decisions have on their lives.Other research has linked increasingly coercive parental behaviors and adolescent opposition in a cyclical relationship resulting in increasingly aggressive adolescent behaviors (Loeber and Dishion, 1983). The pattern created is a process involving progressively more coercive parent-child interactions: The adolescent fights for autonomy by becoming more aggressive. In turn, the mother attempts to control the teen’s escalating problem behavior by becoming more authoritarian. Others have found similar results, linking overpowering parental behaviors with future adolescent aggression and violence (Dadds, Sanders, Morrison, and Rebgetz, 1992). The absence of the autonomous relationship leads the adolescent to feel less supported by the mother and dissatisfied with interaction experiences. In turn, this can lead to a weakened mother-adolescent relationship and more aggressive adolescent behaviors outside of the home (Allen, McElhaney, and Bell, 2000). However, past research does not clarify the behaviors from support seeking interactions between adolescents and their mothers that are related to adolescent behaviors in peer relationships. In this study, a link is sought between supportive maternal characteristics and future social functioning. Adolescents whose mothers dominate the supportive interaction are predicted to become more interpersonally aggressive over time. Support and Adolescent Social Behavior 8The Importance of Maintaining Relatedness in Relationships with ParentsAutonomy is best developed in a supportive environment with parents, i.e. one with a high sense of relatedness (Allen, Hauser et al., 1994; Collins, 1990; Eccles et al., 1997; Garrison,2000; Lamborn & Steinberg, 1993). The presence of warmth and support in a parent-adolescent dyad is equally important to the healthy development of adolescent-peer relationships. Research has demonstrated that the presence of relatedness (i.e. warmth) can positively affect the ability to manage disagreements. The capacity for adolescents to establish and maintain a sense of relatedness with parents has been linked to future social functioning during, and even after, adolescence (Allen & Hauser, 1996; Allen, McElhaney, Land, 2001; Allen, Moore, Kuperminc, Bell, 1998). When the adolescent has a warm relationship with his or her mother, he or she is more likely to have positive peer relationships in which he or she is competent and less conflictual (Black and McCartney, 1997). When the mother is warmer, the adolescent is likely to have better relationships with peers. Adolescent-peer relationships are more likely to be harmonious and in a context where the adolescent is capable of establishing and maintaining the friendship.Maternal warmth and support with the adolescent is associated with positive peer relationships. The adolescent may be able to form positive peer relationships because of positive relationships that have been established at home. The adolescent is able to establish and maintain peer relationships with relative ease, possibly as a result of relationships established with parents. Past research examined how warmth and relatedness in a conflictual scenario affects adolescent socialization (Black and McCartney, 1997). At this point, there are no Support and Adolescent Social Behavior 9 research findings on the relationship between support-seeking interactions and its relationship to peer socialization, specifically conflict resolution skills. This study attempts to help fill that void.Conflict ResolutionParents act as role models for their adolescents and shape how the adolescent will behave in other environments. Maternal communication and support validation during conflict resolution situations are positively associated with adolescents’ communication and support validation with friends. Exposure to a warm and caring relationship allows the adolescent to transfer skills into relationships with peers, making establishment of new peer relationships more likely (Black, 2002). Warmth expressed in the mother-adolescent dyad during conflict resolution scenarios may enhance the adolescent's feeling of comfort when faced with similar scenarios with peers. Consequently, the adolescent may find that it feels good to be part of a warm, empathic relationship. Thus, he or she is more likely to behave warmly with other people he or she cares about, like friends and other peers, when faced with conflict. Relatedness and warmth, as discussed earlier, are integral parts of a supportive mother- adolescent relationship. When the adolescent is more supported, he or she is more likely to have positive peer relationships in which he or she is competent and less conflictual. Adams, Jones, Schvaneveldt, and Jenson (1982) found that the amount of empathy an adolescent possesses is largely accounted for by maternal interpersonal support. The flip side of these results is that when the mother-adolescent relationship is conflicted and disagreements are not resolved, the adolescent responds similarly with peers (Reese-Weber, 2000). However, methods for this type of study often include self-report measures. In this study, coded interactions will produce scores for the level of warmth in the mother-adolescent interaction. Support and Adolescent Social Behavior 10There is extensive research in the field of autonomy and relatedness and their links to various adolescent behaviors. What previous studies found is the effect of warmth and autonomy in conflict resolution settings. In this study, the effects of warmth and autonomy on peer socialization are examined when the adolescent seeks support from his or her mother. Links between adolescent socialization skills, autonomy, and mother-adolescent warmth have yet to be found. This study attempts to discover these links. Previous research has also relied heavily on self-report measures. This study will attempt to find relationships among its variables using self- report as well as coded interactions. The following hypotheses will be tested: (1) Adolescents lacking autonomy in support- seeking interactions (i.e. when the mother dominates the interaction) are likely to become more delinquent over time. This relationship is hypothesized to be true over and above relatedness or warmth in the interaction. Socially, (2) adolescents whose mothers dominate the support-seeking interaction are likely to become more aggressive over time. The level of aggression will hold significance, even after accounting for the warmth or relatedness in the interaction. (3) High levels of warmth or relatedness between the adolescent and mother will produce enhanced conflict resolution skills over time. It is further hypothesized that the level of adolescent dominance in the interaction will not add anything over and above the warmth of the interaction in predicting future levels of conflict resolution skills. Support and Adolescent Social Behavior 11MethodParticipantsThis study assessed 174 adolescents, 83 males and 91 females, from three successive classes at a public middle school in the Southeastern United States. Participants were approximately 13 years old during the first wave of the study (M = 13.36, SD = .66). The second wave was conducted one year later, when the adolescents were approximately 14 years old (M = 14.26, SD = .78). The sample included 105 European American adolescents, 49 African American, and 20 that identified themselves as other/unspecified. The adolescents were of diverse family socioeconomic status, with the parents reporting a mean family income of $40,000 - $59,9999. Thirty-three percent of the parents reported a total family income above $60,000 while 44% reported an income below $40,000.ProcedureDuring the first wave of collection, all potentially eligible adolescents and their families were contacted by mail and asked to return a postcard if interested in participating in a study on adolescent development. Families who returned the postcard were then invited to participate in a three-hour visit with the study interviewers. Students were approached to serve as primary participants (target teens) as well as collateral participants (peers of target teens). A 62.7% acceptance rate was achieved from teens approached to participate in at least one capacity in the study (i.e. either as a target teen or as a peer of the target teen). During the first wave, adolescents and their parents were each paid $20.00 for participation in the initial three-hour interview. The interviews for these and other waves of study were conducted in private rooms at a university clinic. Support and Adolescent Social Behavior 12During the first and second waves of the study, the adolescents were asked to identify their closest same gendered friend to participate in the study. Friends who agreed to participate were interviewed with the adolescent during a two-hour interview; both the teen and friend were paid $20.00. Parents gave active, informed consent and the adolescents gave informed assent prior to each interview. The confidentiality of the information provided by the participants was assured in the consent form and was verbally repeated to the participants before and during the interviews. An U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Confidentiality Certificate (MH-97-44) protected participants’ data from subpoena by local, state, and federal courts. The participants were made aware that confidentiality would not be upheld if the adolescents indicated that they were currently or were planning to hurt another person, or if they indicated that they were suicidal or were being abused. Participants completed the measures in separate rooms to further ensure privacy. The participants were assured that they should skip any questions or decline to participate in any part of the visit which they were not comfortable or felt they could not respond honestly. Researchers were available to read any questionnaire for those participants who had difficulty doing so.MeasuresSupportive Behavior Task. Adolescents and their mothers participated in an eight minute, videotaped interaction during the first wave of data collection. Prior to the interaction, adolescents were instructed to think of a topic from their life that was currently a problem to them to share with their mother and receive her assistance. Mothers were instructed to listen to the adolescents’ topic and engage in a conversation during which they would offer their support Support and Adolescent Social Behavior 13 and help. Typical topics included problems with peers or siblings, problems at school, dating, and decisions regarding joining sports teams.The coding of these interactions was performed using the Supportive Behavior Task Coding Manual developed by Allen, Marsh, Land, Insabella, Porter, Carreon, and Hall (2001). The Supportive Behavior Task Coding Manual was adapted from the Secure Base Scoring System for Adults (Crowell, Pann, Goa, Treboux, O’Connor, and Waters, 1998), the Interactional Dimensions Coding System (Julien, Markman, Lindahl, Johnson, Van Widenfelt, and Herskovitz, 1997) and the Assets Coding Manual: Adolescent Social Skills Evaluation Technique (Haynes and Katz, n.d.)Codes were assigned to each member of the dyad. The Dominance variable assessed “who is in charge” of the interaction (i.e. who determines what is said in the discussion). Being “in charge” was assessed based on who talked for the majority of the eight minutes and who set the agenda for the conversation (Allen, Marsh, Land, Insabella, Porter, Carreon, and Hall, 2001). Overall Warmth of the interaction was assessed using codes regarding valuing, engagement, satisfaction, and interpretation. The Valuing code captured the extent to which each person demonstrated that they genuinely liked each other, as well as assessing the depth of their friendship. Valuing displays included warmth and a sense of wanting to build the relationship in terms of verbal expressions, body postures, and voice tone. These demonstrations included verbal empathy, touching, validating, and positive teasing. Satisfaction of the interaction referenced how satisfied as opposed to frustrated the adolescent seemed to react to the interaction. This code was based on coder inferences from behaviors like laughing, grimacing, and looking away. Engagement gauged the extent that the dyad appeared to be connected to each other, independent of the discussion topic. This category focused on the degree that each Support and Adolescent Social Behavior 14 member of the dyad paid attention to what the other was saying. Engaging behaviors included non-verbal communicators like head nodding, eye contact, and body posture. A member of the dyad was considered fully engaged only if he or she communicated and was sensitive to what the other person was saying. The Interpretation code focused on the extent to which the mother appeared to clearly understand the adolescent’s concern or problem (Allen, Marsh, Land, Insabella, Porter, Carreon, and Hall, 2001). Preliminary analyses demonstrate that qualities of interactions are related in expected directions to delinquency (Allen, Porter, & Tencer, 2002). The Spearman-Brown interrater reliability coefficients for dominance and warmth were .88 and .84, respectively.Peer Beliefs Regarding Adolescent Behavior:  Aggressive and Delinquent Behaviors An abbreviated version of the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) (Achenbach and Edelbrock, 1981; Achenbach, 1991) was used to assess the target adolescent’s behavior. The adolescent's close friend indicated how true statements were in describing the behaviors of the target adolescent. Questions referred to how the adolescent behaved at school, with friends and peers, and general characteristics about the adolescent’s personality (see Appendix A). The close friend could respond with “Not True,” “Somewhat or Sometimes True,” or “Very True or Often True.” The measure yielded a scale for externalizing behavior, created from four subscales including aggression, hostility, delinquency, and hyperactivity. Only aggression and delinquency were analyzed in this study. The CBCL was administered to the close friend during the first and second waves of the study. The short form versions of the aggression and delinquency items were validated by using a large sample of delinquent youth where these subscales reliably predicted delinquency similarly to the full scales(Lizotte, Chard-Wierschem, Loeber, & Stern, 1992). Alpha levels for aggression during Wave 1 Support and Adolescent Social Behavior 15 was .73 and .78 during Wave 2. Alpha levels for delinquency in Waves 1 and 2 were .67 and .72, respectively. Conflict Resolution Skills The Interpersonal Competence Questionnaire (ICQ) (Buhrmester, Furman, Wittenburg, Reis, 1988; Buhrmester, 1990) assessed how well the target adolescent resolved conflicts. The adolescent's close friend was asked to assess how well the adolescent could handle specific situations and engage in certain behaviors. Situations and behaviors included resolving disagreements to make things better and temper control, for example. Friends chose responses on a Likert-scale ranging from "Poor at this" to "Extremely good at this." The measure yielded several scales, but only Conflict Resolution was used for this study (see Appendix B). The ICQ was administered to the close friend during the first and second waves of the study. The alpha level for Wave 1 was .87 and .90 for Wave 2. Support and Adolescent Social Behavior 16ResultsSample MeansMeans and standard deviations for the variables used are presented in Table 1. CorrelationsPreliminary analyses examined simple univariate correlations to measure the magnitude of the relationship between the different variables. Numerous relations were found between the demographic variables and outcome variables of interest (see Table 2), therefore, all were entered into further analyses. Examination of demographic factors moderating relationships was also explored. These analyses revealed no moderating effects. Support and Adolescent Social Behavior 17Hypothesis 1: Adolescents lacking autonomy in support-seeking interactions (i.e. the mother dominates the interaction) would become more delinquent over time. This relationship is hypothesized to be true over and above relatedness or warmth in the interaction. A hierarchical regression analysis tested the hypothesis that lower levels of Teen Dominance would predict higher levels of adolescent Delinquency over time. Adolescent Delinquency during the first wave was entered in order to account for the stability of delinquency over time. Second, demographic variables of gender and minority status were entered. Teen Dominance during the Supportive Behavior Task was entered in order to examine its influence on delinquency over and above the adolescents’ gender and minority status. Teen Dominance during the Supportive Behavior Task accounted for an additional 6% of Delinquency during the second wave (Table 3). Results indicated that after controlling for demographic factors and previous levels of delinquency, Teen Dominance during the Supportive Behavior Task was predictive of future levels of Delinquency ( = -.25, p< .01). Adolescents who were less autonomous during the Supportive Behavior Task were reported by their friends to become more delinquent over time.A second hierarchical regression analysis indicated that Overall Warmth of the interaction did not predict any additional future levels of adolescent Delinquency when added after Teen Dominance (Table 4). Overall Warmth did not substantially account for any further variance in Delinquency over time above and beyond Teen Dominance ( = -.05, p< .001). Relatedness with the mother does not contribute to predictions of future delinquency over and above autonomy with the mother. Support and Adolescent Social Behavior 18Hypothesis 2:Adolescents who exhibit less autonomy (whose mothers dominate the support- seeking interaction) are likely to become more aggressive, as reported by their friends. The level of autonomy will remain a predictor for future levels of aggression, even after accounting for the warmth of the interaction. The relationship between adolescent autonomy in the form of dominance during the Supportive Behavior Task and future aggressive behaviors was analyzed. Hierarchical regression analysis was used to predict adolescent Aggression from Teen Dominance during the Supportive Behavior Task. Adolescent Aggression from Wave 1 was entered in order to account for the stability of aggression over time. Gender and minority status demographic factors were then entered. Teen Dominance during the Wave 1 Supportive Behavior Task was entered as the primary predictive variable. Teen Dominance of the interaction accounted for an additional 3% of adolescent Aggression over a one-year period (Table 5). Results illustrated that Teen Dominance during the Supportive Behavior Task was predictive of future levels of Aggression ( = -.18 p< .05). Adolescents who were less autonomous during the Supportive Behavior Task were reported by their friends to become more aggressive over time.A second hierarchical regression analysis indicated that Overall Warmth of the interaction did not predict any additional levels of adolescent Aggression (Table 4). Warmth with the mother did not substantially account for any further variance above and beyond Teen Dominance ( = -.11, n.s.). Relatedness between the adolescent and mother does not contribute to predictions of future aggression over and above adolescent autonomy. Support and Adolescent Social Behavior 19Hypothesis 3: Supportive Behavior Task interactions with high levels of warmth or relatedness between the adolescent and mother will have adolescents who are rated by their friends as becoming more sophisticated in resolving conflicts. It is further hypothesized that the level of adolescent autonomy in the interaction will not account for additional future amounts of the adolescent's ability to resolve conflicts.Finally, the hypothesis relating Overall Warmth of the interaction to future Conflict Resolution skills was tested. Hierarchical regression analysis was used to predict adolescent Conflict Resolution skills from Overall Warmth coded from the Supportive Behavior Task. To begin the analysis, Conflict Resolution skills from Wave 1 was entered. Next, gender and minority status were added to the model. Finally, Overall Warmth of the interaction during the Supportive Behavior Task was added (Table 7). Results illustrated that after accounting for stability of Conflict Resolution skills in Wave 1 and demographic factors, Overall Warmth during the Supportive Behavior Task accounted for an additional 4% of improvements to Conflict Resolution skills one year later ( = .20 p< .05). Adolescents with high levels of warmth with their mother during the interaction became better at resolving conflicts one year later.A second hierarchical regression analysis indicated that Teen Dominance did not predict any additional increased ability in resolving conflicts (Table 8). Autonomy did not substantially account for any further variance in Conflict Resolution skills above and beyond warmth with the mother ( = -.009, p< .01). Adolescent autonomy did not contribute to predictions of improvements to conflict resolution skills over and above relatedness with the mother. Support and Adolescent Social Behavior 20DiscussionMothers are important in shaping their adolescent's interpersonal skills (Eccles et al., 1997; Shulman, Collins, & Dital, 1993; Sroufe et al., 1999). Research has shown that maternal behaviors can have an effect on adolescent behaviors with peers (Allen, Hauser et al., 1994; Collins, 1990; Eccles et al., 1997; Garrison, 2000; Lamborn & Steinberg, 1993). Many previous studies analyzed the relationship between maternal behaviors and future adolescent behaviors based on an area of disagreement between the mother and adolescent. Often, studies used self- report data to measure and construct maternal behaviors (Kobak, Cole, Ferenz-Gillies, and Fleming, Gamble, 1993; Reese-Weber, 2000). This study used a coded interaction between the mother and adolescent to explore the relationship between maternal supportive behaviors and adolescent social behaviors. Self-report measures from the adolescent's close friend were used to assess the adolescents’ social behaviors.It was hypothesized that (1) mothers who were less dominating during the interaction and therefore allowed their adolescent to be more autonomous would have adolescents rated by their friends as becoming less delinquent over time. It was also hypothesized that (2) adolescent dominance during the support-seeking conversation would be related to becoming less aggressive over time, as reported by the adolescent's close friend. Both of these relationships were expected to be true even when taking into account the overall warmth of the mother- adolescent relationship. Finally, it was hypothesized that (3) warmth or relatedness between the adolescent and mother would produce adolescents rated by their peers as becoming more proficient in resolving conflicts overtime. It was further hypothesized that the level of adolescent Support and Adolescent Social Behavior 21 dominance in the interaction would not add anything over and above the warmth of the interaction in predicting future levels of conflict resolution skills.Hypothesis 1 was supported by data analysis. Mothers who were less dominating and allowed their adolescent to direct the conversation had adolescents who were rated by their friends as becoming less delinquent over time. Similar results were found with Cernkovich and Giordano (1987) when addressing mothers' interpretation and interests in their adolescents' opinions. Research up to this point, however, has not addressed how maternal supportive behavior in the form of autonomy shifting has influenced adolescent delinquency over time. What these results show is that when the adolescent is allowed to be autonomous and direct the conversation concerning his or her own problem, he or she is likely to become less delinquent in the future. Parents who do not control the flow of and try to dominate the conversation might be increasing problem solving skills in their adolescent by encouraging them to talk about what his or her problems are and trying to find a solution.When the adolescent is able to be autonomous in problem solving, he or she may be feeling out what his or her views are, which may affect how the adolescent behaves in relationships and situations outside of the mother-adolescent dyad. By allowing the adolescent practice in problem solving, the mother may be fostering proficiency in this area. It is also possible that while the mother is allowing her adolescent to go through the problem solving process without standing in the way of the adolescent's problem solving, she may be guiding her adolescent towards a resolution that will result in a positive consequence. Perhaps it is these two features, promoting autonomy and providing measured guidance, that maximize the ability for the adolescent to avoid delinquent activities. Support and Adolescent Social Behavior 22An alternative explanation for these findings lies in the relationship between the adolescent and his or her mother. Kobak, et. al. (1993) found that adolescents with a positive relationship with their mothers were equally as assertive as their mothers in problem solving situations. The result that autonomous adolescents became less delinquent could be a corollary effect from the positive mother-adolescent relationship. Adolescents with a healthy relationship with their mothers may believe that their mothers genuinely care about and trust them. This is witnessed in the mother's willingness to allow her adolescent to problem-solve while offering measured input. Perhaps the adolescent, when in situations where delinquent behavior could be invited, knows his or her relationship with his or her mother could be strained if they participate in these kinds of activities. The autonomous adolescent, as a result of practice in problem solving in a safe and supportive environment, may be able to turn down participation in aberrant behaviors. In fact, it might be the adolescent's security in being autonomous, which elicits independent thinking, that endorses avoidance of delinquent behaviors. Though at first glance, it might appear that a warm relationship plays no part in helping deter an adolescent from prospective delinquent behaviors, an alternate explanation is considered here. It is proposed that while the overall warmth of the relationship may have at one point played a large part in deterring the adolescent from delinquent behaviors, it is now the adolescent's autonomy and sense of personal responsibility that decreases their delinquent behavior. It is possible that warmth does not affect future delinquency because the adolescent has become autonomous enough where he or she is more concerned with his or her own reactions to his or her own behavior, rather than those of his or her mother. The mothers of these adolescents have taught them to handle and allowed them such freedom regarding problem Support and Adolescent Social Behavior 23 solving that the adolescent now feels that he or she is most responsible for answering to him or herself regarding behavior and not his or her mother. Hypothesis 2 was also supported by the results: adolescent dominance during support seeking with the mother was negatively related to future aggressive behaviors. Further, the overall warmth of the mother-adolescent relationship did not have an impact on future aggressive behavior prediction. These results support findings from similar previous studies (Loeber and Dishion 1983; McElhaney and Allen, 2001; Allen, McElhaney, and Bell 2000)Explanations for this relationship are similar to those for the relationship between adolescent dominance and delinquent behaviors. It appears that a portion of the adolescent's social functioning is contingent on his or her level of autonomy in the relationship with his or her mother. It is possible that the basis for the relationship between autonomy and aggression is found in the adolescent's level of frustration regarding his or her relationship with his or her mother. In scenarios where the mother is comfortable with the shift of autonomy from herself to her adolescent, the adolescent is less likely to become more aggressive. This may be in part to the adolescent's feelings of satisfaction regarding his or her role in decisions that affect him or her. The autonomous adolescent does not feel a great deal of frustration regarding control over his or her life, and thus decreases aggressive behaviors. Alternatively, the adolescent who is not encouraged to independently find solutions to problems may increase aggressiveness towards peers as a form of anger transference directed towards his or her mother. The adolescent cannot take this anger out on his or her mother for several reasons, one of which being that she is dominating and possibly controlling of her adolescent's life. Thus, the adolescent releases this frustration on his or her peers, as they do not have the power over his or her life that the mother does. Support and Adolescent Social Behavior 24As in analysis regarding dominance and delinquency, overall warmth of the mother- adolescent relationship was not related to increasingly aggressive behaviors over time. Again, this is predicted to be because of the changing relationship between the maturing adolescent and his or her mother. While the adolescent may at one point have avoided aggressive behaviors, which could possibly result in maternal disappointment or punishment, the behaviors are now decreased because the adolescent feels personally responsible for his or her actions. The adolescent may not become more aggressive because he or she knows that participation in these activities will not solve whatever problem there might be and knows that he or she may feel guilty or bad about it afterwards.Hypothesis 3 was also supported by analysis. According to the results, adolescent conflict resolution skills are amplified by a greater presence of overall warmth within the mother-adolescent relationship. In addition, this relationship was not impacted by the adolescent’s degree of dominance or autonomy during the mother-adolescent interaction. These results are supported by conclusions from previous studies as well (Allen & Hauser, 1996; Allen et al., 2001; Allen et al., 1998). A rationale for these findings rests in the comparison between these results and the results from Hypotheses 1 and 2. Warmth does not appear to be a major ingredient in decreasing aggressive or delinquent behaviors. This result was attributed to the adolescent taking control over his or her behaviors and decisions. However, warmth does play a role when the feelings of another person are at stake, i.e. when attempting to resolve a conflict between the adolescent and a friend. The warmth of the mother-adolescent relationship may act as a modeling force in helping the adolescent gain insight into how other people feel during interpersonal conflict. As the mother genuinely cares about the opinions and feelings of her adolescent during interactions, Support and Adolescent Social Behavior 25 she may be teaching her adolescent how to do the same in future relationships. In this manner, the adolescent is able to step outside of his or her mind and take into account the feelings and needs of others. As a result, the adolescents’ friends are able to articulate that the adolescent has improving skills in resolving conflicts than adolescents who do not have as warm a relationship with their mothers.Alternatively, the warmth in the mother-adolescent relationship may act as an archetype for the adolescent's future relationships. The bi-directional warmth during the mother-adolescent interaction may represent a sense of satisfaction on the part of the adolescent (as warmth is rated from maternal as well as adolescent behaviors). In having this relationship with his or her mother, the adolescent may be motivated to seek similar relationships with others, like friends. If the adolescent is unable to build on conflict-solving abilities, he or she runs the risk of losing friends should they disagree or argue. Becoming more proficient in resolving conflicts, the adolescent is more likely to maintain the warmth and satisfaction that he or she finds in the relationship with his or her close friends. It is proposed that this motivation might be based on the amount of satisfaction, as illustrated by the overall warmth, of the mother-adolescent relationship.Amounts of adolescent dominance or autonomy during the Supportive Behavior Task did not account for any significant portion of the adolescent’s increased ability to solve conflicts with his or her friends over time. Autonomy is possibly not a factor because adeptness in conflict resolution is based on compromising, not on assertiveness or being in control. The adolescent who is building on conflict resolution skills may also be augmenting their ability to listen and negotiate his or her own wants for the sake of maintaining the friendship. In such a Support and Adolescent Social Behavior 26 scenario, relying on one’s autonomy and being dominant would most likely result in a loss or dissatisfaction with the adolescent-friend relationship, not alleviation of the conflict.The results of this study suggest several possibilities for future research. Continued investigation in this area would be most beneficial for increasing scientific knowledge if it broadened the focus of the variables used here and the adolescent's relationships with others. For instance, there were only three outcome variables analyzed for this study: delinquent behavior, aggressive behavior, and conflict resolution skills. Further research might be more beneficial if it included additional outcomes, like changes in self-esteem and goal attainment. Where this study observed interpersonal behaviors, it did not assess how the input variables of adolescent dominance and overall warmth affected the adolescent’s changing view of him or herself. It would be interesting to know how the independent variables affected not only how the adolescent thought about others (i.e. starting fights and destroying others’ property) but changes to how the adolescent felt about him or herself over time. In addition, measuring self-esteem and related variables might account for further amounts of the outcome variables measured in this study.Additionally, this study did not take into account the level of the adolescent’s maturity at the times of assessment. It is possible that maturity is a confounding variable to autonomy and overall warmth, and accounts (at least partially) for the changing levels of delinquency, aggression, and conflict resolution skills. It is also possible that the adolescent requires a certain level of maturity in order for autonomy and relatedness to have an effect on the outcome variables. Perhaps a high level of autonomy to a less mature adolescent increases participation in delinquent or aggressive activities over time and decreases their ability to resolve conflicts with Support and Adolescent Social Behavior 27 their friends. Future research should address this area in order to better understand the role of autonomy and relatedness in adolescent interpersonal skill development.Additional research might also explore the outcome variables as reported by peers other than the adolescent’s close friend. It is possible that adolescent's close friend rated him or her as becoming less aggressive and delinquent over time because the friend has never known the adolescent to be especially aggressive or delinquent, and has only had positive experiences in regards to conflict resolution. By surveying further removed peers who do not know the adolescent as well and who may not have had as many positive interactions with him or her, a more global assessment of the adolescent may be possible. Along these same lines, siblings and the adolescent’s father could also be surveyed. As the relationship with peers is very different than relationships with siblings, ratings from brothers or sisters could assess how the adolescent behaves in different kinds of relationships. Father-adolescent relationship dynamics might also contribute to the outcome variables in ways unaccounted for by the mother-adolescent interaction.While the results of this study were significant and supported the hypotheses, there were several limitations. First and foremost, as in all non-experimental psychological research, a correlation between two variables does not infer a cause and effect relationship between them. Adolescent dominance and overall warmth did not account for 100% of the changes in adolescent delinquency, aggression, and conflict resolution skills. Thus, there are other variables unaccounted for that contribute to the outcome variables. While the conclusion states that autonomy and relatedness are part of the reason adolescents participate in fewer or greater delinquent or aggressive behaviors over time and become more or less proficient in resolving Support and Adolescent Social Behavior 28 conflicts, they do not tell the whole story of why adolescents become more or less delinquent, aggressive, or fluent in resolving conflicts.Additional limitations rest in the sample of participants. As the adolescents and their friends came from the same community, they are not representative of adolescents as a whole and the results cannot be generalized to adolescents outside of the sample. Future research might address this by recreating the study using a larger sample from different locations. Finally, self-report data was used to analyze the adolescent in terms of outcome variables.The chance that the adolescent's friend was biased in rating the adolescent in a more glowing light is possibly higher than if a more distant peer was used. It might also have been more beneficial to the results if a coded analysis of behavior was used, similar to the Supportive Behavior Task, but in a naturalistic setting, like at school. Doing this could have further reduced the bias accounted for in self-report measures; however, such an extensive analysis was not within the means of this study.In summary, this study found a relationship between increased adolescent autonomy, mother-adolescent warmth, and enhanced interpersonal social skills. Adolescents who were allowed to be more autonomous were less likely to become more delinquent or aggressive in the future. 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Mahwah, NJ, USA: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Publishers.Steinberg, L. (1990). Interdependency in the family: Autonomy, conflict, and harmony in the parent-adolescent relationship. In S. F. and & G. Elliott (Eds.), At the threshold: The developing adolescent (pp. 255-276). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Support and Adolescent Social Behavior 34Table 1. Means and Standard DeviationsVariables M SD Delinquency – age 13 1.08 1.46 Delinquency – age 14 1.01 1.45 Conflict Resolution – age 13 26.56 6.24 Conflict Resolution – age 14 27.15 6.61 Aggression – age 13 2.62 2.78 Aggression - age 14 2.42 2.60 Warmth 2.35 .78 Dominance – age 13 1.58 .72 Support and Adolescent Social Behavior 35Table 2. Intercorrelational Matrix of VariablesVariables 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 1. Gender 1.00 .10 -.02 -.01 -.01 -.12 .16 .23 .03 .11 2. Minority Status 1.00 .13 -.03 .12 .10 -.12 -.08 -.28 -.05 3.Aggression 1.00 .24 .60 .08 -.38 -.24 -.13 .02 (age13) 4.Aggression 1.00 .08 .47 -.14 -.35 -.16 -.21 (age 14) 5.Delinquency 1.00 .31 -.21 -.23 -.11 -.02 (age 13) 6.Delinquency 1.00 -.04 -.20 -.18 -.31 (age 14) 7.Conflict Resolution 1.00 .23 .11 .07 (age 13) 8.Conflict Resolution 1.00 .23 .08 (age 14) 9.Warmth 1.00 .22 (age 13) 10.Dominance 1.00 (age 13)N ranges from 138 to 185. Support and Adolescent Social Behavior 36Table 3. Hierarchical regression of demographic variables and Teen Dominance during the Supportive Behavior Task in Wave 1 predicting adolescent Delinquency during Wave 2.Predicting Teens’ Delinquent Behavior at Age 14  R 2  R 2 1. Delinquent Behavior at Age 13 .29*** .08***2. Gender (1=male) -.16+Minority Status (2=minority) .14+ .12*** .043. Teen Dominance (Age 13) -.25** .18*** .06Note: ’s are from entry into model. N= 136 +p  .10, *p  .05, **p  .01, ***p  .001Table 4. Hierarchical regression of demographic variables, Overall Warmth of the Supportive Behavior Task, and Teen Dominance during the Supportive Behavior Task in Wave 1 predicting adolescent Delinquency during Wave 2.Predicting Teens’ Delinquent Behavior at Age 14  R 2  R 2 1. Delinquent Behavior at Age 13 .29*** .08***2. Gender (1=male) -.16+Minority Status (2=minority) .14+ .12*** .043. Teen Dominance (Age 13) -.25** .18*** .064. Overall Warmth (Age 13) -.05 .18*** .00 Note: ’s are from entry into model. N= 136 +p  .10, *p  .05, **p  .01, ***p  .001 Support and Adolescent Social Behavior 37Table 5. Hierarchical regression of demographic variables and Teen Dominance during Supportive Behavior Task in Wave 1 predicting adolescent Aggressive Behaviors during Wave 2.Predicting Teens’ Aggressive Behavior at Age 14  R 2  R 2 1. Aggressive Behavior at Age 13 .23** .05**2. Gender (1=male) .03Minority Status (2=minority) -.05 .06* .013. Teen Dominance (Age 13) -.18* .09** .03Note: ’s are from entry into model. N= 138 +p  .10, *p  .05, **p  .01, ***p  .001Table 6. Hierarchical regression of demographic variables, Overall Warmth of the Supportive Behavior Task, and Teen Dominance during the Supportive Behavior Task in Wave 1 predicting adolescent Aggressive Behaviors during Wave 2.Predicting Teens’ Aggressive Behavior at Age 14  R 2  R 2 1. Aggressive Behavior at Age 13 .23** .05**2. Gender (1=male) .03Minority Status (2=minority) -.05 .06* .013. Teen Dominance (Age 13) -.18* .09** .034. Overall Warmth (age 13) -.11 .10* .01 Note: ’s are from entry into model. N= 138 +p  .10, *p  .05, **p  .01, ***p  .001 Support and Adolescent Social Behavior 38Table 7. Hierarchical regression of demographic variables and Teen Dominance during Supportive Behavior Task in Wave 1 predicting adolescent Conflict Resolution skills during Wave 2.Predicting Teens’ Conflict Resolution Behavior at Age 14  R 2  R 2 1. Conflict Resolution at Age 13 .26** .07**2. Gender (1=male) .22*Minority Status (1=minority) -.08 .11* .043. Overall Warmth (Age 13) .20* .15*** .04Note: ’s are from entry into model. N = 124 +p  .10, *p  .05, **p  .01, ***p  .001Table 8. Hierarchical regression of demographic variables, Overall Warmth of the Supportive Behavior Task, and Teen Dominance during the Supportive Behavior Task in Wave 1 predicting adolescent Conflict Resolution skills during Wave 2.Predicting Teens’ Conflict Resolution Behavior at Age 14  R 2  R 2 1. Conflict Resolution at Age 13 .26** .07**2. Gender (1=male) .22*Minority Status (1=minority) -.08 .11* .043. Warmth of Interaction (Age 13) .20* .15*** .044. Teen Dominance -.009 .15** .00 Note: ’s are from entry into model. N= 124 +p  .10, *p  .05, **p  .01, ***p  .001 Support and Adolescent Social Behavior 39Appendix A. Child Behavior Checklist Items used in this study appear in italics.Below is a list of items that describe kids. For each item that describes your friend here with you today now or within the past 6 months. Please answer all of the items as well as you can, even if some do not seem to apply to your friend. Circle your answer.Somewhat or Very True or Not True Sometimes True Often True1) She acts too young for her age. 0 1 22) She can’t concentrate or can’t pay attention for long. 0 1 23) She can’t sit still and is restless or hyperactive. 0 1 24) She cries a lot. 0 1 25) She is cruel to animals. 0 1 26) She is mean to others. 0 1 27) She demands a lot of attention. 0 1 28) She destroys things belonging to her family or others. 0 1 29) She is disobedient at school. 0 1 210) She doesn’t get along with other kids. 0 1 211) She feels others are out to get her. 0 1 212) She feels worthless or inferior. 0 1 213) She gets in many fights. 0 1 214) She hangs around with others who get in trouble. 0 1 215) She is impulsive or acts without thinking. 0 1 216) She lies or cheats. 0 1 217) She is not liked by other kids. 0 1 218) Her schoolwork is poor. 0 1 2 Support and Adolescent Social Behavior 4019) She prefers being with younger kids. 0 1 220) She screams a lot. 0 1 221) She steals outside the home. 0 1 222) She is stubborn, sullen, or irritable. 0 1 223) She has sudden changes in mood or feelings. 0 1 224) She has temper tantrums or a hot temper. 0 1 225) She threatens people. 0 1 226) She whines a lot. 0 1 2

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