Protein Synthesis: Making Protein

Name: ______Date: ______Block: _____PROTEIN SYNTHESIS: MAKING PROTEINRNA Made up of  Phosphate Ribose (a sugar) Four bases RNA bases are: Adenine Guanine Cytosine  ______(instead of thymine) Single stranded Forms part of ribosomes  Two types of RNA: ______(transfer) mRNA (messenger)TRANSCRIPTION: USING DNA TO MAKE mRNA  ______(an enzyme) unzips DNA by breaking the Hydrogen bonds between the bases. Only one strand of DNA is transcribed. Complementary RNA nucleotides are added to the DNA strand.  DNA RNA 2 A – U G – C T – A C – G The start codon is the signal for the place to start transcription. Transcription stops at the ______codons. The sequence of bases along DNA that is transcribed is a gene. The RNA that is made is mRNA. mRNA PROCESSING After mRNA is made, enzymes may cut out pieces of the strand. The sections that are removed are called ______. The sections that remain are called ______and are put together. The finished/mature mRNA strand then leaves the nucleus and is ready for translation.THE IMPORTANCE OF PROTEINS Each gene controls the making of a protein. A gene is section of DNA that gives instructions for a specific protein to be made  20 amino acids make up all proteins Proteins are required for almost every reaction that occurs in your body! CODONS Codon - ______bases in a row that determine the amino acid that is used to make a protein. Some codons do not represent amino acids, but instead act as stop signals (the end of a protein). Note, one amino acid may have more than one codon. 3TRANSLATION: FROM mRNA TO PROTEIN Begins when a ribosome attaches to an mRNA strand. mRNA is used to make a specific protein (or polypeptide).RIBOSOMES The organelle where proteins are made. They are made up of 2 subunits with 2 binding sites. tRNA  tRNA (transfer RNA) is a strand of nucleotides that has an ______attached to it. tRNA carries the appropriate amino acid to the mRNA/ribosome complex. If mRNA is UGG then the tRNA is ______. Translation begins with the start codon. Each amino acid that is brought in to the ribosome is attached to the growing amino acid chain (or protein) The bond between amino acids is called a ______bond. About 15 amino acids are added per second. Translation stops when a stop codon is reached. There are no tRNA’s for the stop codons.  The protein is released to do its job.WHERE DOES THE PROTEIN GO? Sometimes the finished protein goes into the rough ER. The rough ER transports it to various places including the plasma membrane, ______apparatus, and cytoplasm. The Golgi processes and packages proteins. Fro example, some proteins have sugars attached to them. The remodeled proteins leave the Golgi in ______(sacs) to go to other parts of the cell or to leave the cell. 4BIOTECHNOLOGY: The future is here!MUTATIONS Mutation - changes in the DNA sequence that affect genetic information Types of mutations: Gene mutations - changes within a ______gene Chromosomal mutations - changes within a whole ______(affects multiple genes) GENE MUTATIONS Point Mutation - a change in a single ______example: changing an A to a C) Frame-shift Mutation - an insertion or deletion of a nucleotide that causes a different reading of codons from the point of the change to the end of the gene Point Mutations Normal AAT TAA TAG GAT TTT AAA Mutation AAT TAG TAG GAT TTT AAA Frame-Shift Mutations Usually occurs as a result of an insertion or deletion Normal TAC GCA TGG ATT Insertion TAT CGC ATG GAT T Example using words: THE FAT CAT ATE THE RAT THE FAT C AT A TE T HE R AT TEF ATC ATA TET HER AT 5 Just like this mutated sentence does not make sense, frameshift mutations make nonsense proteins that cannot do their jobs correctly.CHROMOSOMAL MUTATIONS Deletion – when part or all of a chromosome is lost Duplication – when part of a chromosome is mistakenly ______ Inversion – when part of a chromosome becomes oriented in ______of its normal direction Translocation – when one part of a chromosome breaks off and attaches to another nonhomologous (not the partner) chromosomeWHEN DO MUTATIONS OCCUR? During DNA replication, mistakes can be made when DNA polymerase adds complementary nucleotides.  If this mutation or mistake happens very early on in a baby’s development, the mutation can affect the entire baby. The rest of the cells will have that same mutation. Remember, we all start off as one cell that must make many news cells through mitosis. Every time your cells divide, DNA has to copy itself and mistakes can be made. If a one of your skin cells divides right now and a mutation occurs, this is probably not a problem.  However, if the mutation causes certain genes to change, the new, mutated skin cell can become a cancer cell. 6CAUSE OF MUTATIONS Mutagen – any agent that causes DNA to ______ UV light Radiation Smoking Many different chemicalsGENE REGULATION Only ______of your genes are being expressed (used to make protein) at any given time. Your body needs mechanisms to “turn on” or “turn off” genes. Chemicals can act as blocks or starters. Some cancers are caused by genes being turned on that should not have been! For example, these genes can be turned on by smoking, which mutates DNA.GENETIC ENGINEERING: Manipulating DNAElectrophoresis DNA is cut by ______to make fragments.  Restriction enzymes cut DNA at specific sequences. Electrophoresis is a technique that separates DNA fragments (using electricity) in a jello-like slab based on the size of the fragments. Smaller fragments are able to travel longer distances more ______. DNA has a negative charge so the fragments will flow toward the positive electrode (opposites attract). If you were to compare two samples of the same DNA using the same restriction enzymes, the banding pattern would be the same. 7 Different people make different banding patterns.AND WHY WOULD WE DO THIS?DNA Fingerprinting ______Tests Children have a banding that is a combination of their mom’s and dad’s banding. Crime solving Identify the person who committed a crime (no two people have the same DNA) Medical diagnosis Determine if you have the gene that causes a disease or disorder.GMOs Genetically modified organism (GMO) – an organism with DNA that has been altered through genetic engineering Transgenic - a GMO that has been altered with DNA from another ______Transgenic Bacteria Bacteria have had many different genes put into them Some examples of human genes that are put into bacteria ______gene Human growth hormone gene Clotting factors gene Transgenic Animals Used to study genes and improve the food supply Mice with human-like immune system genes. Livestock with extra copies of growth hormone genes. 8 Sheep and pigs that produce human proteins in their milk. Transgenic Plants Used for food supply and medical supplies Rice with ______(beta-carotene) gene Genes for herbicide and pesticide resistance in plants Cloning Producing genetically identical organisms from one original cell. We have successfully cloned pigs, cows, mice, sheep, and monkeys. The first animal cloned was a sheep named Dolly in 1997.GENETICS Genetics – the study of ______or passing on of genes Gene – a sections of DNA that codes for a ______to be made Allele – the ______that a gene takes (ex. dominant or recessive) Homozygous – having the ______alleles for a trait Heterozygous – having ______alleles for a trait 9 Dominant trait – an allele that is fully expressed in heterozygotes; represented by a capital letter Recessive trait – an allele that is not observed in heterozygotes; represented by a lower case letter Genotype – the ______of alleles (letters) that an organism has Phenotype – the physical trait or visible characteristic determined by the genes GENETIC PROBLEMS Link between meiosis and genetics: Single Trait Crosses: 10Pedigree: 11Incomplete Dominance Crosses:Codominance Crosses:Multiple Allele Crosses: 12BLOOD ANTIGENS ANTI- RECEIVE DONATE GENOTYPES TYPES (MARKERS) BODIES FROM? TO? (FIGHTERS)TYPE A TYPE B Blood TYPE AB Type: TYPE O 13Blood Type Crosses:Sex-linked Crosses:

Protein Synthesis: Making Protein

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