<p>A2: Virtue Ethics G582: A2 Religious Ethics Ethical Topics and Theories: Virtue Ethics</p><p>Candidates should be able to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of:  the principles of Virtue Ethics from Aristotle;  the ‘agent-centred’ nature of Virtue Ethics;  the concepts of eudaimonia and the Golden Mean;  the importance of practising the virtues and the example of virtuous people;  more modern approaches to Virtue Ethics.</p><p>Candidates should be able to discuss these areas critically and their strengths and weaknesses.</p><p>1 A2: Virtue Ethics</p><p>2 A2: Virtue Ethics</p><p>Candidates should be able to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the ‘agent-centred’ nature of Virtue Ethics</p><p>Agent-centred approach • Moral theories (Utilitarianism, Kantian Ethics) focus on the questions ‘What ought I do?’ ‘What is the right action?’ [act-centred approaches]. • Aristotle’s question: ‘What kind of a person ought I be?’ [agent-centred approach]. • Aristotle’s answer: ‘a good one.’ • Question – what is a good person?</p><p>Aristotle’s Function Argument • Aristotle has a teleological metaphysics – natural things are categorised in terms of their unique function/purpose (telos). • In order to describe x as good, we need to: 1) know what sort of thing x is; and 2) know what the purpose of that kind of thing is. e.g. The unique purpose of an acorn is to grow into an oak tree. • An acorn is a potential oak tree, so … o A good acorn is one that does grow into an oak tree (its potential is realised by becoming an actual oak tree). o A bad acorn is one that fails to do so. • So in order to be able to say what a good person is, we need to know what the unique human purpose is. • Aristotle thought that all living things possess a nutritive soul, all animals possess a perceptive soul, and only humans possess a rational soul. • Since humans are the only creatures to be able to use reason (from the rational soul), our unique purpose/function is to reason well. • Humans that reason well are good humans. • "The function of man is activity of soul in accordance with reason.”</p><p>3 A2: Virtue Ethics Candidates should be able to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the concepts of eudaimonia and the Golden Mean</p><p>Eudaimonia and human flourishing • When we reason well, we flourish. (just as the acorn flourishes as it grows into an oak) • This state of being (sometimes thought of as a kind of happiness or well-being) is called eudaimonia. • Eudaimonia is: o the highest human good o desired for its own sake (it is intrinsically good) o not a kind of bodily pleasure • But how do we reach eudaimonia? • Aristotle: By being virtuous.</p><p>The virtues • A virtue = ‘a disposition to act reliably to certain features of situations’. - A disposition is a tendency to act in a certain way (eg glass is fragile) - A virtue is a quality of character that a person needs to live the good life, and flourish (just as a rose needs sharp thorns and a sweet smell). • Aristotle divided the virtues into two kinds: o Intellectual virtues (knowledge etc) - these can be learned from a teacher. o Moral virtues - these are practical virtues (they help you become a good person) - these are acquired through practice. • Aristotle posited 12 moral virtues (in your table, the 12 become 10 - Aristotle had two kinds of Generosity and two kinds of Pride). • In any area of human character, there will be two extremes – these are vices to be avoided. e.g., Fighting in a war. • Aristotle says the virtue (courage in this case) is somewhere in between these two vices. </p><p>4 A2: Virtue Ethics • When we behave virtuously, we can be said to have reached the Golden Mean • This principle is called the Doctrine of the Mean. </p><p>Aristotle’s Vices and Virtues (simplified table)</p><p>DOMAIN EXCESS MEAN DEFICIENCY Fear and Rashness/Foolhardiness Courage Cowardice Confidence</p><p>Pleasure and Self-indulgence Temperance Insensibility Pain</p><p>Getting and Prodigality/Extravagence Generosity Stinginess/Meanness Spending</p><p>Honour and Vanity Pride Undue humility Dishonour</p><p>Patience/Good Anger Irascibility Lack of spirit/Apathy temper</p><p>Understatement/mock Self-expression Boastfulness Truthfulness modesty/Self- deprecation</p><p>Conversation Buffoonery Wittiness Boorishness</p><p>Social Conduct Obsequiousness/Flattery Friendliness Unpleasantness</p><p>Shame Shyness/Bashfulness Modesty Shamelessness</p><p>Righteous Malicious Indignation Envy indignation enjoyment/Spitefulness</p><p>5 A2: Virtue Ethics</p><p>Candidates should be able to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the importance of practising the virtues and the example of virtuous people;</p><p>Being virtuous • Being a good person = being a virtuous person. • A virtuous person = someone for whom behaving virtuously is part of their second nature. • Our first nature is passive and unreflective. • Possessing a virtue is having a disposition to do certain things.</p><p>Practising the virtues • We are not born virtuous - but we all do have the potential to become so. o This is supported by Rosalind Hursthouse points out that although we hear about young mathematical prodigies, we do not hear of young virtuous prodigies. • We have to practise/train to become virtuous - so that being virtuous is second nature. This takes time (Aristotle gives the example of a lyre player). • When we are virtuous, we behave virtuously out of habit - this is not a passive unthinking behaviour, but an active and rational way of being.</p><p>The example of virtuous people • We can also become virtuous by aspiring to become like other virtuous people (archetypes) - e.g., Gandhi, Jesus etc.</p><p>6 A2: Virtue Ethics Candidates should be able to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of more modern approaches to Virtue Ethics G.E.M. Anscombe • Wrote ‘Modern Moral Philosophy’ (1958) • Moral theories that involve ‘you ought to …’ require God to give laws and enforce them. o Kantian Ethics & Utilitarianism lack the requisite foundation (because they do not posit God as the source/enforcer of the rules). • Virtue Ethics avoids this difficulty, therefore is a more plausible theory</p><p>Rosalind Hursthouse • Although we hear about young mathematical prodigies, we do not hear of young virtuous prodigies. • Being virtuous helps us in our moral deliberations – virtuous people more often make the ‘right’ decision.</p><p>Philippa Foot • Goodness is relative to the kind of thing in question. • Humans are social animals, so good people live together well with others. • As Aristotle wrote: ‘Good is the same for the individual and the state.’ </p><p>Keenan • Keenan thinks there are three important questions in Ethics: o Who am I? o Who ought I to become? o How do I get there? • He thinks Virtue Ethics has the tools to answer these questions.</p><p>7 A2: Virtue Ethics Alasdair MacIntyre • Wrote After Virtue (1981) • MacIntyre describes Moral Philosophy as being stuck in the Dark Ages since Virtue Ethics had been forgotten during the Enlightenment. • Promotes an agent-centred approach • Uses Ancient Greek ‘Heroic Society’ as an exemplar of how people work for the good of society. (Virtues of courage and fidelity to the fore).</p><p>8 A2: Virtue Ethics</p><p>Candidates should be able to discuss these areas critically and their strengths and weaknesses</p><p>Strengths 1. No need for a God to create moral laws.</p><p>2. Compatible with religious ethics</p><p>3. Ethics should be about becoming a good person.</p><p>4. Avoids the problem of morality simply being a case of ‘follow the rules!’.</p><p>5. Society will benefit if we are all good people.</p><p>Weaknesses 1. Modern Science rejects the teleological classification of Nature.</p><p>2. The virtues are hard to pin down – ‘between two vices’ isn’t enough.</p><p>3. Are there not some virtues for which there cannot be a ‘too much’?</p><p>4. Schaller thinks moral rules come first, and virtues second: ‘Are virtues no more than dispositions to obey moral rules?’ So virtue ethics cannot be the whole story.</p><p>5. If we want Ethics to be action-guiding, virtue ethics doesn’t help as it is not act- centered. E.g., a moral dilemma, or an applied/practical ethics topic.</p><p>6. Robert Louden: we are correct to describe some acts as wrong – e.g., torturing innocents.</p><p>7. William Frankena: ‘Virtues without principles are blind.’</p><p>8. Susan Wolf: Moral saints are boring – they lack the ability to enjoy life. Role models should be exciting!</p><p>9</p>