<p> (15) Pronouns (Types of Pronouns; Their Formal and Semantic Properties; Their Syntactic Functions) </p><p>(15.1) Characteristics of Pronouns</p><p>(15.1.1) Pronouns versus Nouns - pronouns = replace nouns / noun phrases => lack a lexical meaning of their own - PRO in contrast to N (a) semantics - a closed class system (b) morphology - case contrast for subject x object case - person distinction - gender contrast (c) syntax - determiners - nominals - functions of ADJ - functions of ADV</p><p>(15.1.2) Grammatical Categories - case, gender, number, person (1) case - N: common case x morphologically marked possessive case - PRO: marked subject case x object case x possessive case (possessive PRO) - x you and it not marked for case - formal: PRO following the verb be, i.e. not followed by the finite V form > subject case - x colloquial: ... > object case: it’s all right, it’s only me (2) gender - manifested in 3rd person SG personal / reflexive / possessive PRO - relative / interrogative PRO: personal (who) x non-personal gender (which) (3) number - manifested in special lexical entry: I > we; he / she / it > they - x exceptional regular PL formation by the –(e)s ending: yourself > yourselves; other > others; one > ones - demonstrative PRO: SG this > PL these; SG that > PL those (4) person - manifested in personal / reflexive / possessive PRO - 1st person = the speaker - 2nd person = the addressee - 3rd person = ‘the rest’ - colloquial: you / they = also with the meaning of a general human agent (you change three times / where do they sell it?) - formal: we / one = ... (one doesn’t like to have one’s word doubted)</p><p>(15.1.3) Reference - a linguistic context > anaphors = bound within the minimal domain by subject, need a co- referential antecedent - a pragmatic c. > pronouns = free within the minimal domain x bound by clause-external context - anaphoric reference = reference to an antecedent already mentioned in the clause before - cataphoric r. = reference to an antecedent to be mentioned in the clause (absent in CZ)</p><p>(15.2) Classification of Pronouns</p><p>Dušková Quirk / Greenbaum (I) specific (1) central (1) central (a) personal: me, we, ... (a) personal (b) reflexive: myself, ourselves, ... (b) reflexive (c) possessive (c) possessive (a’) determinative (pre-nominal): your, its, ... (b’) independent (post-nominal): mine, hers, its?, ... (2) reciprocal: each other, one another (d) reciprocal (2) non-central (3) relative: the wh- series, that (e) relative (4) interrogative: the wh-series (f) interrogative (5) demonstrative: this/that, these/those (g) demonstrative (6) indefinite (II) indefinite (a) positive (a’) universal: all/both, each/every (h) universal (b’) assertive: some-, one, half, several, enough, other, another (i) partitive (c’) non-assertive: any-, either (j) quantifying (b) negative: no-, neither Central PRO: different syntactic functions x the same morphological features</p><p>(15.2.1) Personal Pronouns - functions of 3rd per. SG it (a) can replace a N with both definite and indefinite determination - x ... N with an indefinite determination only with a co-referential antecedent: I’ve bought a new hat but my husband doesn’t like it - ... not a co-referential antecedent > the pro-form one: I’ve bought a new hat and Jane has bought one too (b) a ‘place holder’ = a formal substitute in the position of the subject: it’s raining / snowing / warm - CZ: one-member subjectless clauses x not possible in E</p><p>(15.2.2) Reflexive Pronouns - SG -self or PL -selves + 1st and 2nd pers. PRO in possessive case - ... + 3rd per. PRO in object case (1) non-emphatic use - PRO co-referential with the subject = the action expressed by the verb passes from the subject back again to the subject - typically takes the position of the object - functions (a) a direct object: he shaves himself (b) an indirect object: she bought herself a new hat (c) a part of the predicate: ah, that’s better, you’re yourself again (d) used as an adjective: she wants a little time to herself (e) used as an adverb: speak for yourself (f) with reflexive verbs: absent oneself from, pride oneself on, behave yourself, introduce oneself, excuse oneself, underestimate oneself (2) emphatic use - PRO not necessarily co-referential with the subject - typically takes the position of apposition > after the emphasised sentence member: the gift will be presented by the head-mistress herself - pronounced with an emphatic stress</p><p>(15.2.3) Possessive Pronouns (a) determinative = an attributive function (pre-nominal) (b) independent = nominal function (post-nominal) - E: possessives also used to refer to parts of the body (he broke his leg) x CZ: absent - determinative possessives in complementary distribution with articles - special structures (a) the structure N + of + POSS when need to use another determiner besides the possessive: a friend of mine (implies one out of many) (b) POSS in the function of subject: ours was not an intimate acquaintance </p><p>(15.2.4) Reciprocal Pronouns - each other = implies only two - one another = implies more than two - x CZ: reciprocal pronouns identical with reflexive pronouns</p><p>(15.2.5) Relative Pronouns - who (whom, whose), which, that - compound relative pronouns: whichever, whatever, whoever - distinction of person (who / that) x non-person (which / that) - distinction of restrictive (who / which / that / 0) x non-restrictive (who / which) - who: personal antecedent x whose: also non-persons (NOT the interrogative whose!) - which: non-personal antecedent / sentence antecedent - that: restrictive relative clause (they live in a house that was build in 1600) - who / which: can be preceded by a PREP x that: the PREP postponed to the sentence end (here is the car about which I told you x here is the car that I told you about)</p><p>(15.2.6) Interrogative Pronouns - who, which, what - used to form questions - functions: determiners (whose idea was it?) / nominals (whom did she marry?) - distinction of person (who / which / what) x non-person (which / what) - which (= which of): implies a choice from a restricted set of possibilities - what (= what kind of): asks for characteristics or description - what related to persons can refer only to the nominal part of the predicate (what is he [what’s his profession]? what is he like? x who is he [what’s his name]?) - what: usually with a postponed PREP (what are you hinting at?)</p><p>(15.2.7) Demonstrative Pronouns - SG this / that > PL these / those - functions: both determiners (pass me that box please) / nominals (what is this?) - this, these = ‘near’ reference x that, those = ‘distant’ reference - this: both anaphoric (The story is greatly exaggerated. At least that’s what he told me.) and cataphoric reference (I know this much, that his story is greatly exaggerated.) - that: anaphoric reference only </p><p>(15.2.8) Universal Pronouns - all, every, every- (-one, -body, -thing), each, both (1) all - semantics: unity or collectivness - co-occurrence: SG / PL; count / non-count; person / non-person - function: determiner (all the money is spent) / nominal (all is lost) (2) every - semantics: individual items in a collective > with 3+ items - co-occurence: SG; count; person / non-person - function: determiner (the explosion broke every window in the street) (3) each - semantics: individuals items in a collective taken one by one > with 2+ items - co-occurence: SG; count; person / non-person - function: determiner (each person signed the paper) / nominal (each must do his best) (4) both - semantics > with 2 items - co-occurence: PL; count; person / non-person - function: determiner (both the men were found guilty) / nominal (both were found guilty)</p><p>(15.2.9) Partitive Pronouns (Quirk) / Existential and Negative Quantifiers (Dušková) - some and its compounds (-body, -one, -thing) - any and its compounds (...) - no and its compounds (nobody, no one, nothing, none) - other (the other, another, others, the others) - either and neither (1) some - semantics: an indefinite quantity or number (PL or non-count: I spilt some milk on the table) / a particular but unidentified person or thing (SG count: some fool has overran my cat) - co-occurrence: SG / PL; count / non-count; person / non-person - function: determiner (he wants some money) / nominal (if you have no money, I lend you some) - use: affirmatives, interrogatives when expecting affirmation (2) any - semantics: no matter what (emphatic use: come any day you like) / an indefinite quantity or number (non-emphatic use: is there any coffee left?) - co-occurrence: SG / PL; count / non-count; person / non-person - function: determiner / nominal - use: negative sentences, interrogatives, conditionals (3) no - co-occurrence: SG / PL; count / non-count; person / non-person - function: determiner (there is no coffee left) (4) nobody, no one, nothing, none - co-occurence: SG - function: nominal (nothing happened) (5) other - form: a countable pronoun with inflectional morphology - = the second of two: the other + SG verb / the other + SG noun (one of my brothers is named X, the other Y / give me the other book) - = the remaining ones: the others + PL verb / the other + PL noun - = different or additional ones: others + PL verb / other + PL noun (some like milk chocolate, others prefer plain chocolate / there are other ways of doing this) (6) either / neither - co-occurence: SG; countable; person / non-person - function: determiner / nominal - either = one or the other of two (either method can be used); both (I haven’t seen either of them) - neither = not this and not the other (neither of the two statements is correct)</p><p>(15.2.10) Quantifying Pronouns - many / few; much / little; several, enough, one (1) many (more, most) / few - co-occurence: PL; count - function: determiner (have you many books?) / nominal (no, I have few) (2) much (more, most) / little - co-occurrence: SG; count / non-count - function: determiner (we have not much time) / nominal (much has been said, and little done) (3) several - co-occurence: PL; countable - function: determiner (I have seen several of them) / nominal (he made several mistakes) (4) enough - co-occurence: PL; countable / non-countable - function: determiner (have you got enough food?) / nominal (yes, we have enough) (5) one - = a numerical stressed variant of the indefinite article: one boy disappeared yesterday - = a substitute for a SG or PL countable noun: I thought you prefer large ones - = a substitute for a general human agent: one can never be careful enough</p>