Loyola University Chicago s2

LOYOLA UNIVERSITY CHICAGOHELPING KOREAN IMMIGRANT FAMILIES TO CHANGE CHILD ABUSE PROBLEM:A POSTMODERN MULTICULTURAL LANGUAGE SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVEA DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF SOCIAL WORK IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF SOCIAL WORKIN GRADUATE SCHOOL OF SOCIAL WORKBYKUI-HEE SONGCHICAGO, ILLINOISMAY 1999 2Copyright by Kui-Hee Song, [1999] All rights reserved. 23ACKNOWLEDGMENTSThis dissertation would not have been possible without considerable assistance from a great many people. With deepest respect and warmest regard, Dr. Daniel B. Lee, DSW has been an outstanding committee chairperson. Over the years, I benefited appreciably from Dr. Lee whose exclusive scholastic knowledge background with multicultural and bilingual guidance shed light on all this dissertation research process. I am extremely thankful to Dr. Catherine Tyson for a great deal of encouragement and scholastic insight about cross-cultural qualitative research methodology. I would like to give heartfelt thanks to Dr. Robert Noone, Executive Director of Family Service Center for valuable insight and support throughout coding process. I am truly in debt to my client, the Kim's four family members (father, mother and two daughters), especially the mother, Mrs. Kim for joining my dissertation research process and teaching me about the significance of genuine lovelessness or "han" and love or "chung" than anyone else in my life. I am indebted to Jude Gonzales, Director of Graduate Program of School of Social Work, Loyola University Chicago for his critically important friendship, sustaining support , and ongoing creative conversation rendered for this dissertation. I owe a special debt to Dr. Tong He Koh for her warm support to bring the translation of dissertation research to meaningful fruition. I would also like to thank both Niegel Cohen, Assistant Professor of Criminal Justice and Dr. Dora E. Saavedra, Professor of Communication at University of Texas-Pan American for brilliant editing. 34I greatly acknowledge generous support to my friends, Bong-Ki Yim and Young-Mee Baek who brightened my outlook during the most demanding times. Lastly, I acknowledge my parents whose sincere sacrifice and gratitude for journeying with me in love, faith, and trust to celebrate high moment during this doctoral program completion process. 45TABLE OF CONTENTSACKNOWLEDGMENTS……………………………………………………………………… iii TABLE OF CONTENTS……………………………………………………………………… vi LISTS OF TABLES..…………………………………………………………………………….ix ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………………….xCHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………….1 Purpose of the Study….…….………………………………………………………………..1 Significance of the Study….…………………………………………….………………...…4 Research Question…...………....……………………………………………………………5 Tentative Hypothesis.…………….………………………………………………………….5 Definition of Terms….………………………………………………………………………7II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE……………………………………………………………11 Korean American Families Involving Child Abuse Problems…………………………….11 Sociodemographic Characteristics in Metropolitan Chicago………………………….11 General Family Characteristics of Child Abuse Korean Population in Chicago…..12 Psychosocial Characteristics………………………………..…………………………16 Intergenerational Dilemmas…………………………………………….…………16 Dissociation from Family Members & Community………………………………17 Social Structure Change.…………………………………………………………..18 Cultural-Linguistic Characteristics…………………………………………………….19 Confucianism…………………………………………………………………..…..19 Implications of Confucianism………………………………………………….…..19 Child Rearing & Discipline Practice……………………………………………20 The Best Interest of Family …………………………………………………….21 Communication Practice………………………………………………..…..…..23 Absence of Linguistic Elaboration of Child Abuse Event…….…………………...25Theoretical Perspectives of Child Abuse Treatment & Prevention……………………….28 Modern Perspective………………………………………………………………..…..29 Postmodern Perspective……………………………………………………………….30 The Emerging Multicultural Perspective within Social Work Profession……..……...35 Ideological Premises………………………………………………………………..36 Theoretical Bases.…………………………………………………………………..38 Multicultural Perspective on Child Abuse…………………………………………….40 Conceptual Framework Guiding the Study………………………………………………..42 Social Construction Theory… ……………………………………………….…….…43 Supplementation…..…………..…………………………………………………….43 Joint Action..……………………………………………………………….……….43 Social Constructionism/Constructivism………..…………………………….…..…44 Hermeneutic Theory...…………………………………………………………………46 Narrative Theory………..……………………………………………………………..58 Collaborative Language Systems Approach to Therapy……..……………………….49 56Modernism and Postmodernism In Therapy………..…………………………...53 Not-Knowing Position …….……………………………..……………………..55 What Therapeutic Questions Are Not………...………………….……….……..56 Therapist Role…..………………..……………………………………….……..56 Therapeutic Process of Dialogical Conversation & Collaborative Narrative……….... Relationship….………..……………………………………………..………….57 Review of Relevant Studies of Child Abuse………………………………………………59III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY……….………………………………………………..61 Confirmation of the Case Study Method.…………………………………………………..61 Research Design……………………………………………………………………………63 The Compatibility between the Evaluator's & the Practitioner's Theories………………..65 Sampling Plan…………………………………………………………………………….. 65 Setting…………………………………………………………………………………….. 66 System used to Evaluate the Treatment……………………………………………………66 The Pilot Case Study……………………………………………………………………….67 Data Gathering & Procedure……………………………………………………………….69 Triangulation…………………………………………………………………………… 69 Procedure………………………………………………………………………………..69 Development of Coding Categories…………………………………………………….71 Data Analysis Method……………………………………………………………………..71 Validity…………………………………………………………………………………….73 Culturally Relevant Construct Validity…………………………………………….…...73 Ecological Validity……………………………………………………………………...74 Reliability…………………………………………………………………………………..74 Reliability Regarding Qualitative Coding………………………………………………74 Reliability Regarding English Translation.……………………………………………..75 Procedures to Protect Participants & Obtain Consent……..……………………………….76IV. DATA ANALYSIS…..……………..……………………………………….……………77 Background Information……….……………………………….………….………..……..78 Coding Analysis………………..…………………………………………………………..79 Dialogical Speech Development……………….………………………………………..79 Perspective Taking Development……………………………………………………… 96 Narrative Process Sequences…………………………………………………………..101 Therapist Inter-Subjectivity……….….….………………………………….………115 Therapist Interactional Modes………………………………………………………115 Therapist Dialogical-Relational Process……………………………………………118 Thematic Analysis………………………………………………………………………...131 Family Relationship Meaning…………………………………………………………131 Parental Caring Behavior Meaning……………………………………………………154 Parental Coercive (child Aversive) Behavior Change……………………………….. 167 Cultural Significance of Korean “Han” Transformation Processes……………………… 174 Recapitulation of “Han” Cultural Perspective……………………………………….. 174 Case Analysis From Korean “Han” Cultural Perspective……………………………. 175 The First Stage of Fermenting or “Sak-hee-gi”……………………………………..178 The Second Stage of Reflecting or “Neuk-deul-li”..……..…………………………182 The Third Stage of Disentangling or “Han-pul-li ..……….……………………….185 The Fourth Stage of Mind-Emptying or “ Ma-uem-bi-uen-da”…………….…..…..18967V. RESULTS OF HYPOTHEIS TESTING…………………………………………………194VI. SUMMARY AND IMPLICATIONS………..………………………………….……….. 221 Summary of Major Qualitative Findings……...…………………………………………….221 The Central Qualitative Findings………………………………………………………222 Cultural Significance of Korean “Han” Transformation Processes…………….……..225 Restatement of the Major Hypothesis Testing………………………………………...226 Implications for Social Work………………………………………………………….…..229 Theoretical Implications for Practice………………………………………………….229 Implications for Child Protective Service Policy……………………………………..234 Implications for Clinical Research……………………………………………………235 Additional Implication of “Han” Transformation Processes…………………..……..240 Limitations of the Research…………………………………………..………………242 Suggestions for Further Study……………………………………………………..…242 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………...243APPENDICES A. Informed Consent Form………………………………………………………….245 B. Coding Systems………………………………………………………… ……….247 C. Sample Coding……………………………………………………………………255 D. Descriptive Elaboration…………………………………………………………..257 REFERNCES …………………………………………………………………………………268 VITA…………………………………………………………………………………..……….28278LIST OF TABLESTABLE 1 Conceptual Shift from Modernism to Postmodernism……………..…...…………….542 Impact of Tape-Recording on Client Experience in Therapy………...………….…...683 Quality of Change in Mother’s Dialogic Speech Development…….…….……….….81 4 Quality of Change in Mother’s Perspective Taking Development…..…….…..…..…975.1 Quality of Change in Mother’s Narrative Process Modes……………….…..………1025.2 Quality of Change in Mother’s Involvement Modes..……...….…..…..……………1065.3 Quality of Change in Mother’s Temporal Orientation……………..………………..1116.1 Quality of Change in Therapist Interactional Process……………………..….……..1176.2 Quality of Change in Therapist Dialogical-Relational Process….…..………………1207 Quality of Change in Mother’s Family Relationship Meaning.……..………………1308 Quality of Change in Mother’s Parental Caring Behavior Meaning .……....….….. …1569 Quality of Change in Mother’s Coercive (Daughter’s Aversive) Behavior………....16810 Quality of Change in Mother’s “Han” Transformation Processes..………………… 17889ABSTRACTThe prevalent phenomenon of therapeutic cultural-linguistic dissonance impeding self- agency and empowerment with Korean immigrant clients involving child abuse problems, in the confining helping context of pathologizing, victimizing, and authoritative culture, indicates a need for an alternative approach to communicative multiple meaning construction in the less confining context of collaborative-constructive-connecting culture. This study was designed to explore and evaluate one such process: Process for a Child Protective Service related Korean immigrant family to resolve child abuse problem and generate new meanings of parent-child relationship during therapy through therapeutic dialogical conversation. Using coding and theme analysis of the selected transcribed discourses of three therapy sessions of 1, 6, and 12 demonstrated the significant changes in client’s belief system of physical child abuse problem, the descriptive process of the problem, and the parental coercive behavior, as well as the nature of practice context. Both qualitative coding and theme analysis methods confirmed client’s communicative multiple meaning construction and the usefulness of therapeutic dialogical conversation with a Korean Immigrant family as an ethnic-cultural minority involving child abuse problem. Implications for social work practice, policy, and research are presented. Recommendation for further research includes the suggestions for within-case analysis with whole twelve sessions, as well as for cross-case analysis with more specificity of client type. This may enhance validity and reliability, reassuring that the events and processes in one well-described setting are trustful and not wholly idiosyncratic. This study continued the social work legacy of evaluative practice and contextual client perspective in helping ethnic specific minority clients resolve cultural-linguistic dissonance and construct confident-communicative multiple meanings about serious social problem, such as physical child abuse. 910CHAPTER IINTRODUCTIONPurpose of the StudyThe purpose of the proposed study is to explore and describe the linguistic-relational dissolution process by which 1) problem with physical child abuse can be resolved and 2) a new relationship meaning about parent-child can be generated for child protective services (CPS) referred Korean immigrant clients through therapeutic dialogical conversation from a postmodern multicultural language systems perspective. According to the Statistical Abstract of the United States (1994), the reports of substantiated child maltreatment in Asian and Pacific Islanders has continuing increased from 1990 (6,408) to 1992 (8,007). Since the 1980s, Korean immigrant families have begun to find themselves perceiving their child maltreatment, especially physical child abuse (Song, 1986; Ahn, 1990; Lee, 1991), as very serious and participating in child protective services (CPS) involved the physical child abuse problems. These CPS Korean immigrant clients have encountered cultural-linguistic dissonance in therapy processes. Two primary complications which often impede self-agency and empowerment with Korean immigrant clients are conflicting interpretation and disjunction. First, the discrete stories or narratives by child welfare and mental health professionals, which encapsulate Korean clients' experiences of physical child abuse problem in the United States are 1011 often interpreted and described in conflicting ways as they do not sufficiently represent the lived experiences of actual events including physical child abuse. Second, under these circumstances, the significant and vital aspects of Korean immigrant clients' lived experiences of the child abuse contradict and do not reflect the dominant narratives/voices of the service providers. The study has evolved from the author's interest in the interface and integration of child welfare policy, its implementing effects, child abuse theory and practice, and the lived experiences of Korean immigrant families involving physical child abuse problems.In the postmodern spirit of the 1990s, a family member's experience of therapy might be one of a collaborative and empowering venture, with a solution evolving naturally out of the dialogical conversation, rather than monological and being prescribed or directed (Anderson, 1997; Anderson & Goolishian, 1988, 1991; Anderson, Goolishian & Winderman, 1986; Goolishian, 1990; Goolishian & Anderson, 1987). The narrative/constructivist or postmodern movement of the 1990s has challenged the limitation of the modern approaches their epistemologies. The physical, cybernetic, biological, and sociological epistemologies that inform our clinical field have been criticized for their limitations ( Anderson, 1987, 1991, 1995, 1997; Anderson & Goolishian, 1988, 1991; Atkinson & Heath, 1990; Cecchin, 1987; Chessick, 1990; Dell & Goolishian, 1981; de Shazer, 1985; Flax, 1990; Gergen, 1982, 1985, 1991, 1994; Gergen, Hoffman, & Anderson, 1995; Hoffman, 1993, Kleinman, 1986, 1988; McNamee & Gergen, 1992; Sampson, 1981; Shotter, 1993; Watzlawick, 1976, 1984; White & Epston, 1990). It concerns much more to being a person than having a few oversimplified, characteristic ways of behaving. Postmodernism is concerned with the person in a situation and a variety of meanings which are depending on the situational and linguistic context. Accordingly, the rapid shift to an epistemology of the semantic and narrative results in a more hermeneutic and interpretive position regarding the data of the child welfare field, instead of dichotomizing child abuse as a disease. 1112The author argues that the current therapeutic culture involves the realities of multiple therapeutic systems with an emphasis on pathologizing, victimizing, and authoritative or interventive focuses. Therapeutic language within the discourse is a deficiency-based language and is often assumed to represent behavior and mental reality accurately (Anderson, 1997). From the vantage point of cultural-linguistic dissonance, the current CPS delivery system needs to be critically examined for its counter-therapeutic effect among court-mandated cases of diverse cultural background (Aldebimpe, 1981; Billingsley & Giovannoni, 1972; Jonsson, 1994). Furthermore, Song (1986) suggested that existing child welfare service networks have not reached out to the Korean American community. Knowledge of preventive strategies to reduce the risk of child abuse is important, as is the ability to assist marginalized Korean clients in negotiating "multiple perspectives and accepting the relativity of meaning itself...in the relational context in which behavior is situated" (Gergen & Kaye, 1992, p. 183). Thus there has been an ongoing need for an alternative conceptual framework that informs a therapy moving from a hierarchical to a horizontal, egalitarian, and collaborative effort to understand the therapeutic process more richly (Anderson, 1997, Anderson & Goolishain, 1986, 1991; Goolishian & Anderson, 1987, 1990, Goolishian, 1990). A postmodern collaborative narrative approach to therapy highlights the socially created meanings and narratives. It also helps to define our identities in terms of organizing and coordinating our mutual social behavior. This approach will help to understand the client's construct system and semantic meaning of child abuse problems, and to articulate the lived experience of child abuse. This also involves understanding of the way that clients relate and respond to each other in their every day lives in a world of events. And in working with CPS Korean immigrant families, it also will facilitate therapy process and relationship to create/recreate meanings and understanding and construct/reconstruct realities and self with a sense of freedom or feeling of hope (Anderson, 1997). 1213Several questions are raised here in pursuing the understanding of the dialogical conversation for new meaning creation from a postmodern multiple reality perspective. What makes therapy work for Korean immigrant clients coming from a culture whose cultural pattern of harsh physical punishment is often practiced and not the word of child abuse exist? What aspects of the therapeutic process enhance the possibilities for generating adaptive meaning and action relating to physical child abuse by CPS Korean immigrant families? This study will examine the usefulness of a collaborative narrative approach to therapy with CPS Korean immigrant clients. Significance of the StudyThis study is viewed as significant for several reasons. First, the absence of the empirical studies in Korean physical child abuse by use of qualitative methods, particularly from the interpretive/narrative perspectives makes this study timely. Such a model has not been tested with ethnic CPS families. Since no process studies using qualitative methods with the targeted population such as Korean have been conducted, this study will fill the gap in the empirical literature. Second, ethnic specific practice knowledge is in great demand for both prevention and treatment processes, to assist in negotiating multiple realities with the aim creating multiple meanings and shared understanding without threatening their integrity when working with CPS minority clients. Third, this study will make a significant contribution to the field of ethnically specific family violence study to advance the therapeutic process. This study will serve an important role in accommodating increasing incidences of CPS Asian immigrant families in the context of their unfamiliarity with the American legal system and social service systems, as well as the lack of sensitivity on the part of the mainstream practitioners toward cultural-linguistic dissonance and its implications for effective delivery of human services. 1314Research QuestionThe study is directed to the following major research question. How does a CPS involved Korean immigrant client use the therapeutic dialogical conversation to resolve a child abuse problem and generate a new meaning about the parent-child relationship? The study will proceed with the following implementing sub-questions: 1. How does a CPS Korean client’s semantic frame of the physical child abuse problems change during therapy?2. How does the clients' process of description of the physical child abuse problems change during therapy?3. How is the clients' change in meaning of the physical child abuse problems related to their action in therapy room and the family during therapy? 4. What does a therapist do that contributes to the change in the clients' narratives including the physical child abuse problems during therapy? Tentative Hypotheses (Propositions)Corresponding to above the research questions 1-4, tentative hypotheses are specified as the following, based on major propositions derived from previous studies and Anderson's collaborative language systems therapy theory. The major proposition is that because a therapy system is egalitarian-that is, each participant’s subjective stories, such as descriptions and explanations of the physical child abuse, can be respected, listened to, and dialogued with 1415 self/other, a certain pattern of meaning/action change and interactional process change will be produced. Among these changes, the study specified the following. Hypothesis 1. 1.1. Clients' belief systems of the physical child abuse problems will move positively toward different/new causal connection of the physical child abuse events or will re-relate the physical child abuse events in the context of new/different meaning during therapy (Anderson, 1997). 1.2. Clients' belief systems of physical child abuse will shift from an either/or logic of negation (A/not A) to a more both/and (A & B) logic of integration during therapy. (Anderson, 1997; Keeney, 1987) Hypothesis 2.Clients' descriptive systems of physical child abuse events will shift from simple actions to a more encompassing pattern that includes a third person during therapy (Anderson, 1997; Keeney, 1987). Hypothesis 3. As a fixed meaning of the physical child abuse problem moves toward a more adaptive meaning, parent client will decrease coercive behaviors and child client will decrease aversive behaviors (Anderson, 1997; Urquiza & McNeil, 1996). Hypothesis 4. 15164-1. As a therapist becomes more responsive, the client participates more in dialogical process and the clients' single, polarized perspective-taking will shift to more multiple, mutual perspective-taking (Anderson, 1987, 1997).4-2. As a therapist maintains coherence with client's first-person narrative about the physical child abuse event, the client's perceived self will become more positively valued (Anderson, 1997; Eron & Lund, 1993).4-3. As a therapist's conversational questions allow the client’s to tell her stories, the client will move more to elaboration of descriptions/explanations of physical child abuse problem (Anderson, 1997, p. 145). Definition of TermsCPS Korean client is defined as a family who is composed of Korean immigrant first generation parents and 1.51 and/or the second generation children and involves child protective service system with child abuse problem in Illinois Cook County and Lake County DCFS (Department ofChild and Family Services) Regions. Meaning is defined as that which is represented by Korean client's narratives about physical child abuse problem in therapy that constitutes her actions.Physical child abuse is defined (1) legally according to the lllinois Abused and Neglected ChildReporting Act (1996): "Abused Child" means a child under the age of 18 years whose parent or1 1.5 generation of Korean immigrant children are those who were born in Korea and later on their early childhood immigrated to the U.S. with their parents (Kwon & Kim, 1993). 1617 immediate family members, or any person responsible for the child's welfare, or any individual residing in the same home as the child, or a paramour of the child's parent: a. inflicts, causes to be inflicted, or allows to be inflicted upon such child physical injury, by other than accidental means, which causes death, disfigurement, impairment of physical or emotional health, or loss or impairment of any bodily function; [or] b. creates a substantial risk of physical injury to such child by other than accidental means which would be likely to cause death, disfigurement, impairment of physical or emotional health, or loss or impairment of any bodily function; [or] c. commits or allows to be committed any sex offense against such child, as such sex offenses are defined in the Criminal Code of 1969, as amended, and extending those definitions of sex offenses to include children under 18 years of age; [or] d. commits or allows to be committed an act or acts of torture upon such child; or e. inflicts excessive corporal punishment; and (2) as a problem dealt with in therapy emanating from social (cultural) narratives and self-definitions that do not yield an effective self- agency for the parenting tasks defined (Anderson, 1997). Self-Agency is defined as a personal perception of competency for action, including freedom (from the imprisoning past, present, and future) and hope (for a different future) (Anderson, 1991,1992, 1995, 1997). Narrative is a discursive schema located within local individual and broader contexts and within culturally driven rules and conventions (Anderson, 1997).Therapeutic dialogical conversation is defined as a generative process in which new meanings emerge and are mutually constructed between client and therapist (Anderson, 1997). Monologue refers to thinking and communication that involve control through the monopoly of a single perspective in terms of which a domain is defined (Braten, 1987).Dialogue refers to thinking and communication that allow for creativity and consciousness through the complementary autonomy of participant perspectives (Braten, 1987, p.10) Internal dialogue refers to conversation or internal speech (Vygotsky, 1986, p, 218) that occurs in language, putting thoughts into words (Anderson, 1997).1718External dialogue refers to conversation that occurs to all people present, spontaneously joining in the telling of the story, adding to, and expanding on it rather than correcting the other’s version(Anderson, 1997, p.128).Story-telling is defined as a therapeutic technique that changes the emotional setting or viewpoint. It relates to a situation that is experienced, applying a broader and more fluid context of meaning that embrace past, present, and future dimensions, rather than the immediate, narrow interactional context that surrounds the problem (Eron & Lund, 1993). Conversational questions are defined as circular and reflective questions based on circular assumptions about the nature of the mental phenomena used in therapy.Circular questions refer to relationship questions that investigate the recurring contextual patterns of relating which constitute a family system (Nelson, Fleuridas, & Rosenthal, 1986, p.114).Reflective questions refer to questions that provide new contextual information to the family (Tom, 1984). 1819CHAPTER IIREVIEW OF THE LITERATUREIn order to select the theoretical perspective and conceptual framework for the study that fits into Korean American families involving child abuse problems, Korean immigrant families' multiple contextual features of living situation, including socio-demographic, psychosocial, and cultural-linguistic characteristics are reviewed. Then, theoretical perspectives of child abuse treatment and prevention, and the conceptual frameworks guiding the study are presented. Korean American Families Involved With Child Abuse ProblemsSociodemographic Characteristics in Metropolitan ChicagoAsian Americans comprise approximately 3 percent (7.3 million) of the total U.S. population and State of Illinois according to 1990 census. The current census reflects the trends of a rapid population increase and a move toward gaining a structural basis for participation in socioeconomic and political advancements. However, while the myths of a "model minority" (Gould, 1988) portray Asian Americans as a success oriented people exhibiting academic and economic advancements, most Asian immigrants, in particular recent immigrants, experience a sense of powerlessness because of the language barrier, unfamiliarity with American customs and norms, prejudice, and the loss of social support 1920 networks and a sense of belonging that is found in their native environments (Hirayama & Citingok, 1988). Since the 1980s Korean Americans, along with Chinese, Filipino, and Vietnamese, are one of the fastest-growing immigrant groups, with a strong identity and a rich history and culture (Kitano & Daniel, 1988; Patel, 1987). About 90 % of them have been in the United States for fewer than 15 years (Kim, 1991). According to Kim (1991), as years went by, with a few exceptions, the first generation of Korean immigrants were occupationally and socially more isolated. This, in turn, gave rise to a peculiar set of values and the highly stratified community which can be united only against the outside world (P. 102). In general, many difficulties Korean immigrant families face may be consistent with the difficulties other Asian American immigrants face such as: psychosocial stress, overwork, handwork, underemployment, cultural alienation, intergenerational derailment (Lee, 1989), acculturation pressure, language barrier, and loss of social support network system and sense of belonging to community.General Family Characteristics of Child Maltreatment Occurring Among the Korean Population in ChicagoAt the present time, because official statistical data on child abuse do not present an ethnic- related breakdown among Asian American groups, data on the cases involving Korean families are not available from Illinois DCFS or police departments. So, in the light of the clinical data from the author's working experience, including internship in Family Service Center at Wilmette, Glenview, and Northbrook, and several important interviews with social service providers, including a Wilmette Police social worker, a Glenview Police social worker, a Northbrook Police investigator, a Northbrook juvenile counselor, and a public guardian in October, 1994, as well as an interview with a Korean police investigator in the Chicago Police 17th District Station in February, 1995, family characteristics can be addressed in the following remarks. 2021Although the incidence rate of Korean child abuse has not been high, compared to the total number of children abused in Illinois, it has been recently increasing. At this point it is useful to make clear the characteristics of incidence of Korean child abuse in terms of a geographical area comprising the Chicago metropolitan and north suburban areas, where approximately 2450 ethnicKoreans live according to 1990 census. The Korean population presented the most change of any ethnic group. For example, the Korean population showed a 230 percent increase rate, while the Wilmette population decreased during the same period of time from 1980 to 1990.The suburban areas where many reside, including Wilmette, Northbrook, and Glenview, is also populated with a large number of other Asian or Pacific Islander populations. The number of reported physical abuses of Korean children has been higher than that of other reported types of abuses such as emotional and sexual abuse. But it is interesting that this incidence rate has been bigger than that of other Asians, for example, Chinese and Japanese, who live in the same areas. According to a Wilmette Police social worker2, during the period of 1990 to 1996, 10 child abuse cases have been reported, and of these, two Koreans were accused of crimes and one Japanese person. The severity of these two physical abuses was moderate, and the victims were adolescents (ages 15 and 16). Both of them were sons: One was the eldest, with one younger sister; and the other was a middle child, with one elder brother and a younger sister. The alleged perpetrators were the natural fathers and their occupations were self-employment in inner-city small businesses. Both of the households were headed by two parents. They graduated from four- year college, and were the first generation Korean immigrants. They had lived in Chicago, and had moved to Wilmette 6-7 years ago because of better school districts for their children's education. They have lived in America for over 20 years. One case was reported by the district school personnel and the other one by police.In addition, from January 1994 to the present, the Family Service Center at Wilmette, Glenview, and Northbrook, has treated 12 child abuse cases of mono-lingual Korean-speaking 2 A Wilmette police social worker 2122 families. Among them, one was sexually abused and all other cases were abused physically. The severity of physical abuse was usually moderate or mild. The victims were under 15. An exceptional case was a one-month old girl who was reported by hospital personnel as a suspected abuse case due to a skull fracture. Of the children in the 11 cases, 2 were elementary school age; 3 were junior high school age; and 2 were high school age. Eight cases involved the first-born child; 2 the second born child; and the sibling position of 1 child was not known. All of them were abused by their natural parents. Among the 12 cases of abuse, 10 occurred in two-parent homes and 2 in single parent homes. Among 5 natural mother abusers, there were three single mothers (two divorced, working mothers and one in the process of divorce of the second marriage receiving AFDC services); and two were housewives in two-parent homes. Among 7 natural father abusers, 5 natural fathers were in two-parent families in the first marriage and 2 were in the process of divorce of the first marriage. One case, based on the statement of the junior high school social worker, was uncertain about child abuse as she just tried to figure out several facts by telephone call with the author in order to make a decision for report to DCFS: (1) see if the child’s mother had really abused her son or not in terms of U.S. legal definition and (2) see how Korean cultural background interpreted parents’ beating behavior. Especially, among the 9 cases with two-parent families, 5 families were double income families with both parents working together over 10 hours a day, 6 days a week, mostly in self- employment in inner-city small businesses. Eight families were middle-income families, and 3 were lower-income families. In seven cases the abusing parent had graduated from a four-year college; in two cases the parent had graduated from high school, and in the other two cases the parent had graduated from elementary school. All of the 11 cases were first generation Korean immigrants since the mid 1970s and early 1980s, except one who was the 1.5 generation. They have been in America for 2-15 years, but they have lived in these suburban areas for 1-5 years, having moved recently to benefit from the good school districts for their children's education. An overwhelming majority of the referrals came from professional sources. Seven cases were found 2223 by school personnel, with 4 of those who reported and 3 not. One case was reported by a medical examiner, one by a social service agency, and one by law enforcement (a police officer who arrived at a situation of domestic violence). One case was self-reported by the natural children. The average ages of both victims and abusers were higher than the norm, and the average number of children in the home was lower. Eight abusers were over 40 years old and 3 were over 30 years old. Seven cases of them were two child families; 3 were one-child families; and one family had 3 children. In contrast, according to a police officer at Chicago's 17th District Police Station3, the child abuse cases in inner-city areas where there has been no resident police social worker, as there has in the suburban areas, are seen in many aspects differently. First of all, there appeared to have been an almost exactly similar rate of physical abuse and sexual abuse. From 1991 to 1994, there were 15 reported cases involving Korean children, and nine cases were alleged after his investigations of child abuse. Among the nine cases, five cases were of physical abuse and four cases were of sexual abuse. Child sexual abuse incidents happened in a day care center, and were perpetrated by a male worker. Two cases are under investigation. Of the five physical child abuse cases, in 4 cases the alleged perpetrators were natural fathers who were very often under influence of alcohol, hit their wives, and who did not make official complaints. In the other case the abusing parent was the mother .The child abuse victims were under 14, in junior high school and elementary school. Three physically abused children were sons and two were daughters, while two sexually abused children were sons and two were daughters. These abusive families were of low income and owned small retail businesses with debts. They have been in America under 10 years, and most of these families were recent immigrants. Generally, the distributions in the characteristics of Korean child abuse profiles mentioned above are similar to those with comparable data found by the studies in Korean child abuse 3 A police officer at Chicago's 17th District Police Station 2324 families, but they are different from those of the mainstream population where compared to the national data (Lee, 1991). Psychosocial CharacteristicsThe major psychosocial characteristics of Korean American families who experience physical child abuse problems may be seen in terms of intergenerational dilemmas, dissociation from family members and community, and social structure change as follows: Intergenerational Dilemmas. Intergenerational adjustment to the new reality of Korean immigrants is inherently difficult, as it involves different behaviors and ways of thinking on the part of both the parents and their children. These life conditions of Korean immigrant families suggest two problematic points that may influence physical child abuse in Korean immigrant families. 1. Parents' Authority and Children's Autonomy. The hierarchical structure of patriarchal family system and cultural value orientations of deference, as dominant social forces, have undoubtedly shaped the social behavior patterns of many Korean immigrants. The tendency of respect for authority of parents minimizes Korean children's spontaneity in revealing their true thoughts and inner feelings in front of parents who are perceived to be authority. The Korean parents who provide authority expect unquestioning obedience, and submission to a family structure that makes decisions for the children as extensions of parents. As the period of residence continues, children of immigrants can assimilate more quickly than their parents and begin to view their culture as inferior to that of the dominant community. This may cause a serious gap between the two generations within the family. In their struggle for a greater independence, a clash may form as parents struggle for control (Chung, 1994). That struggle may lead to emotional and even physical abuse of children. 24252. Family Honor and Academic Expectation of Korean Parents. There is a strong emphasis on preserving family honor among Korean parents. If a child behaves in an embarrassing manner, the whole family is disgraced because a child in a Korean family is hardly regarded as an independent, whole person (Locke, 1992). As an expression of such family honor, stress on the educational success of children has been a central part of Korean culture. Korean parents strongly encourage children to complete college and post-collegiate education. Children in Korean immigrant families are conscious of their parents' expectations. Many first generation Korean parents say that they accept the idea that "the first generation must be sacrificed" in order to provide their children with education and a brighter future. Dissociation from Family Members and Community1. Cutting off from the family of origin. According to Bowen family systems theory (Gilbert,1992; Kerr & Bowen, 1988), individuals and nuclear families involved in being cut off emotionally from their families of origin, linked with poor relationships, experience immediately increasing emotional intensities or symptoms and find themselves unable to cope with life's problems. For most Korean parents, their families of origin are the most reliable resources and support system they can ever have. Loss of viable emotional contact with the family of origin can increase anxiety, particularly when Korean immigrant families are under personal and family stresses in the new immigrant's life. 2. Dual cultural lag phenomenon of Korean-American parents. There appear to have been dual cultural lags in Korean immigrants' families. Interestingly enough, the more Korean immigrants stay in America the greater the cultural gap becomes not only between Korean immigrants and the Korean community, but also between Korean immigrants and the mainstreamAmerican society. It reflects the fact that Korean immigrants have increasingly been socially 2526 isolated from the mainstream society as well as the Korean American community, and consequently have become more prone to senses of alienation, estrangement, and powerlessness. In the cases of physical child abuse, Smith (1992) also presented that "the degree and extent of emotional and physical cut-off in social relationships is a reasonably good predictor of the level of violence and aggression. The more families are emotionally isolated from social relationships the less anxiety can be managed through triangulating friends and social activities. Cut-off in social and extended family relationships combined with intense efforts to create harmonious and peaceful relationships within the family are factors related to the most violent and aggressive child abuse" (pp. 3-4). 2627Social Structure Change Koreans came to the United States with a strong hope for socioeconomic mobility because they saw and heard of opportunities to improve their lot. But they soon realized that their hopes would not be easily achieved. Many Koreans started their new lives as blue collar workers or with jobs which were much below their pre- migration occupational status. They volunteered to work overtime or second shift, and they often brought work home, violating American labor laws, to shorten the period of "disgrace." For the highly status-conscious Koreans, factory and low-level service work was an excruciating fact of life. These Koreans believed that they lost face in doing such work, and they determined to gather some savings and move as soon as possible out of low status work. Not only parents, but also young adults worked as part-time manual workers in whatever jobs they could find. All family members contributed to the family economy, hoping for the day of wealth and comfort. Whatever occupations they chose, many Koreans entered various sorts of small business - wholesale, retail, trade, or service - and many had their businesses in the Korean business areas or in other minority areas. Not many of them were able to compete with native- born Americans in the mainstream (Kim, 1991). As newly arrived immigrants, an especially large number of Koreans were operating small businesses in riot-affected areas after saving some money. The 1992 Los Angeles riot is an excellent example. Although Korean Americans comprise less than 2% of the total population of Los Angeles County (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1990), more than 2,000 Korean-American owned business were destroyed, and approximately 40% of total damages from the rioting was incurred by this group alone (Goh, Suh, & Blake, 1995). When Korean parents worked long hours in the green grocery store, they frequently kept their children without adequate supervision.2728When they returned home at over 10:00 p.m. after working twelve to sixteen hours, they were too tired to be the type of parent they would like to be.Cultural-Linguistic CharacteristicsConfucianismAcceptable norms for behavior in the Korean family and society are strongly influenced by the combination of the three main roots: Confucianism and Taoism originating in Chinese philosophers, and Buddhism originating in India but imported to Korea through China. Among the three belief systems, Confucianism has had the most profound impact on Korean families because it was the official philosophy of Yi dynasty (1910-1932), which was thoroughly institutionalized and systematically diffused to the people (Yum, 1987). Yum (1987) indicates that Confucius stressed five cardinal relationships: 1) between Emperor and subject; 2) father and son; 3) husband and wife; 4) brother and brother; and 5) friend and friend (Analects XII, II). There is a contractual quality implied in each of these since both had responsibilities and duties to perform for the other. He assumed that the central unit of society is the family, not the individual. It is the connections and assistance that one can expect from others in the family's name that make one's surname so important. In such a family state, the authority is autocratic and hierarchical, since the father is the natural superior to the son. Thus Yum (1987) indicates that hyo (Filial piety) is regarded as the highest embodiment of jen (humanism). One's relationship with one's parents is regarded as the starting point of all relationships which, in its highest form, should reach beyond and above one's parents and outward beyond one's brothers and sisters. In the interests of maintaining harmony, "The nobler- minded man will be agreeable even when he disagrees", thus also preserving the dignity of the other out of loyalty. Assertiveness is thus discouraged.There is an assumption that children want to be taught the correct way to behave so that they too can contribute to the harmony and betterment of the family. Rather than being seen as 2829 autonomous beings from the start, children are born with a set of responsibilities to their families, that is, filial duty. Children are seen as fitting into a fixed hierarchy, and are taught early on their proper hierarchical relationships to everyone in the family. These are based on age, sex, and kin. One's actions and not one's motives are at issue.Given this major influence of Confucianism, the ideal man is one who has control of his feelings so that they are not hurtful to himself and do not infringe upon others. The enlightened person is one who has no attachment to his emotions -- true understanding of events obviates them. Self-restraint in all things is highly encouraged. In sum, one of the dominant themes of the Eastern perspective is the ultimate wholeness or oneness of disparate parts in the holistic manner, while it is obvious to the Western perspective that there is indeed a whole to which the parts correspond in the analytic manner. There is no part and whole but rather one part/whole from the Eastern perspective (Kincaid, 1987).Implications of Confucianism The implications of Confucianism are addressed in terms of child rearing/discipline practices, the best interest of family, and communicational practice in order to understand a collectively shared meaning system of Korean immigrant families encountering child abuse. 1. Child-Rearing/Discipline Practices: From the perspective of Confucians in Eastern culture, child rearing practices place emphasis much more heavily on the values of obedience, duty, sacrifice for the in-group, sharing, non-competitiveness, and setting good examples for the younger siblings. There appears to be a specific set of methods and attitudes in Korean child-rearing practices. These include tremendous indulgence as well as high expectations early on, instillmenting the notion of duty to family and reciprocal responsibilities, the denial of affective experiences, and the lack of praise. These methods, according to the views of many Korean Confucians, would seem to lend themselves to the raising of the ideal person according to the 2930 philosophical values mentioned (Tang, 1992), that is, the best interest of family or parents. At age4 or 6, the child is taught filial duties toward parents. Simultaneously, a great deal is also expected from children. Discipline is usually in the form of scolding, spanking, or shaming. With young children, it is not uncommon to hear mothers tell their "disobedient" children that they will be taken away by a policeman or some equivalent authority figure if they misbehave. Threats to abandon the child are also used culturally. It is considered appropriate for older relatives to correct the child. The central focus is on teaching children impulse control, proper behavior toward siblings, parents, and relatives, and there is less interest in the child's expression of opinions, creativity, and independence. Asian parents want a child who will "become a strong healthy adult who is obedient, respectful, and capable of supporting them in their old age. "There is also a strong emphasis on preserving family honor among Asian families. If a child behaves in an embarrassing manner, the whole family is disgraced (Locke, 1992). 2. The Best Interest of Family: The best interest of family is actually quite controversial inWestern child welfare law. Actually in Western legal thinking there is considerable conflict between children’s rights perspective (e.g., the best interests of the child should be applied in legal decision-making) and a parental rights perspective. As evidence of this note that only very recently was legislation passed in the State of Illinois stating that the best interest of the child should be the standard applied in child welfare decision-making; this was necessary because there is so much emphasis parental rights. Many states do not have this best interest of the child legislation. The standard which normally applies in guardianship, custody and welfare of, or access to, a child in Western legal systems requires more likely the best interests of the child or the welfare of the child to be the paramount consideration in any decision than does Asian society. The stronger formulation of the best interests principle (i.e. the paramountcy standard) weakens utilitarian calculation, which is to increase the sum of human happiness (justice for welfare), to carry out a more complex exercise of balancing needs with possible gains (justice for fairness), 3031 and to protect 'the family' from outside interference (justice for right) at large because, under the classical utilitarian approach, each is to count as one and no more than one. At least, the paramountcy standard is consistent with a restricted utilitarian approach. Therefore, it is not possible to predict the precise formulation that will be applied to the case. As one moves away from a strong best interest standard, prediction becomes progressively harder. The justification for it might be that in order to maximize the welfare of a society over time, one should give greater weight to children's welfare (Parker, 1994). In contrast, the Asian interpretation of the best interest of the child encapsulates a much wider notion of what the community or family considers to be in the interest of a given child or children. There is often no clear separation between the interests of the child or children on the one hand and the interests of adult members of the family or any relevant social group on the other hand. That is, there is a "little me" maintaining its interdependency within the context of the"big me" -- i.e., the family, the state, and the world, throughout the life span (Dien, 1983). The Eastern societies are not organized on individualist lines and hence they tend to subsume individual interests into group interests. It would assume that this kind of Western interpretation of the best interests of the children is necessary but not sufficient for every culture because cultural-linguistic dissonance between different ethnic groups still plays a significant role in negotiating adaptive, multiple meanings in family relationships, including parent-child relationship. As a result, balancing parents’ and children’s rights may call for an urgent attention in order to bring the best interests of children in the every day family life. 3. Communicational Practice: In Korean families, the emphasis on the boundary seems to be more between family members and outsiders, while in American families, the emphasis is more between individuals in the family. Within the home, however, privacy hardly exists. Space and possessions are shared; whereas inside the American home, privacy is emphasized, space and possessions are individualized (Hsu, 1983).3132In the area of communication, Korean families are characterized by the subtle and indirect ways they reveal information and express feelings. In Western society, the ability to express ideas and feelings openly and directly is highly valued. Within most Korean culture, critical comments and emotions are usually suppressed and direct discussion and confrontations which may not only have led to hurt feelings and to loss of face but also caused embarrassment and shame, are avoided because harmonious interpersonal relationships are so highly valued. According to Hsu (1983), the Korean language was especially well developed to accommodate the Confucian ethical rules of human relationships. The language is very complex, with special vocabularies for different sexes, for different degree of social status and degree of intimacy, and for formal occasions. Correct usage of the proper language for certain occasions and for certain communication partners is regarded as a sure sign of a learned person. Then by elementary school, children have acquired the basic rules of honorifics. If a child does not know how to choose an appropriate sociolinguistic level of speech in a given situation, the child's parents are blamed for poor home education. There is a strict hierarchy among sentence enders -(s)upnita, -eyo, and -e, as the term "speech level" implies, but the same speaker could use any of the three in a conversation with the same hearer, quite appropriately depending on the context of conversation. For example, a female adult speaker talks to her mother: (Suni is coming) "Swuni-ka o-pnita" (with the highest speech level) is most appropriate where formality is required, "Swuni-ka o-ayo" (with the relatively high level) is possible when the daughter and mother are friendly and relaxed mood, and "Swuni-ka o- a" (with the panmal level, lower level) is also possible where they are more relaxed, not conscious of other persons around or with their privacy well secured. Power relationship, which is defined by age, kinship relation, social status, or other ranks, is certainly one of the important factors for choosing the forms of sentence-type enders, but it is not the only one. There are two more determining factors: Solidarity and formality. The notion "solidarity" is introduced to 3233 indicate the degree of friendliness, intimacy, or familiarity. Formality refers to the degree of formality of a given discourse context (Park, 1992). Confucianism also left a strong impact on nonverbal communication patterns in Korea. Korean smiles often baffle those not familiar with Korean culture. Koreans smile when they are happy, amused, or being friendly, but they smile even more vigorously when they are embarrassed or sorry about their own misconduct or shortcomings. They smile when they speak to their elders about something that has gone wrong, and they smile when the verbal communication fails, for instance, with foreigners. Unlike laughter, a smile is a neutral expression which does not result from the emotional passions, for instance anger and displeasure, which in the Confucian view one is supposed to suppress. Therefore, the smile has become a convenient expression. In addition, Koreans place a high value on catching minute nonverbal cues, on reading between the lines, and on hearing between the sounds. Then "nun-chi" (roughly translated as perceptiveness or sensitivity with eyes) is regarded as an important communicative quality in Korean culture, since it is through nun-chi that one understands what is going on without being told. A person without nun-chi is regarded as a crude or unsophisticated person (Yum, 1987).Regarding the ways in which love and affection are expressed in Korean families, love and affection are expressed through the fulfillment of mutual obligation and through actions, such as tending to physical needs. When two people meet, instead of inquiring of each other's health, the Korean ask "Have you eaten?". "You appear to have gained weight," is commonly used in getting people to show goodwill.Absence of Linguistic Elaboration of Child Abuse EventsNo existing word or phrase for physical child abuse within the communal language: Even more destructive to Korean abusive parents' functioning of self is the situation in which there are no existing words within the communal language with which to capture their personal experience.The phrase "physical abuse of a child" in American culture can be considered easily as child 3334 discipline in Korean culture. When the linguistic forms utilized in the community do not provide the individual a means for expressing Korean parents' personal experiences, the results can be a sense of identity fragmentation. This is essentially a socially imposed representation that may make them doubt the accuracy of their sense of reality and ability to construct a personal identity (Saari, 1991). The therapists often note how difficult it is to confront or deal with Korean immigrant parents, as in treating Asian American parents whose children are abused physically. Korean parents whose children are abused physically acknowledge physical punishment of their children but they don't accept they are abusers and criminals. There is a clear lack of consensus in defining physical child abuse in the treatment between western therapists and Korean families. First of all, most Korean parents are not aware of the existence of American law which does not allow parents to use physical punishment, protects children from physical punishment by regulating the custody of children, and treats parents who employ physical punishment as criminals. Furthermore, even though some Korean parents know these realities, they usually think that the results will not be so harsh and serious. At least Korean parents expect that the child protective services have some chances of negotiation process between parents and the reporters of child abuse. For example, when school teachers find out which children are physically punished by their parents, Korean parents expect that the teachers are supposed to talk about what happened at home with parents first. Most Korean parents recall that anyone could be whipped by their parents when they were growing up in childhood in Korea.They view physical punishment as a necessary means of correcting children's bad habits. That does not mean that they abuse their children physically. Parents ignoring child behaviors that need correction is considered by Korean parents to mean that they are not responsible parents any more, who do not show concern about their children's future. Furthermore, Korean parents who see hitting their children have no sense of obligation to report the cases, and also don't know 3435 where to turn to request protection for the abused children. Korean parents often think that they discipline their children to get rid of bad habits.Nevertheless, from the author's clinical, observation which is consistent with Gong (1985)'s research on child abuse and neglect, there is some consensus among Asian Americans, in the defining of child abuse among Korean parents. Korean parents perceive the extreme type of physical punishment and murder of children as child abuse. In addition, Korean parents have a sense of distinction between physical discipline of the child and emotional involvement of the parents' in engaging in disciplinary behaviors. However they consider that the extreme type of child abuse would be perpetrated by step-parents, especially a step-mother, but not the natural parents, which notion has longstanding historical precedent in Korean cultural narratives regarding child abuse. Moreover, Korean parents, especially mothers, consider physical punishment as the reflection of an excessive desire for children's success but not as intentional child abuse. The following case is a good example of how most Korean parents perceive physical child abuse:The client, a 37-year-old Korean mother, was referred to the Family Service Center by DCFS for counseling regarding physical punishment of her first son. In her first sessions, she expressed her view of physical child abuse as follows: As a Korean parent I thought that if I were in Korea, this kind of terrible thing such as court involvement and losing the children with no clear future would not have happened and I had would not have been looked down upon. I did not abuse my son physically and was not guilty of a crime because I did not kill my son and also I did not hit any other people's children. I believed that children were considered as a part of a whole family and especially that my eldest son was just like myself and there was no one else in the world like parents who could do good job for children. I had only an excessive expectation and desire for my son's success in study. Therefore within a Korean cultural context, there has been wide acceptance of the idea of physical discipline of children as contributing to the incidence of child abuse in the United States.By contrast, within the present American cultural context, most American adults are aware of the existence of the phenomenon of child abuses primarily through the mass media of 3536 communication. They know where to turn to request protection for an abused child and know of various educational programs concerning the problems of child abuse. American adults think that almost anyone could, at some time, physically abuse a child in their care. Lastly, a majority of American parents show a rather tolerant attitude toward perpetrators of abuse, favoring treatment and supervision for them, not punishment (Gil & Noble, 1970). According to Wells (1995), definitions mandating legal intervention serve quite a different purpose than social constructions or definitions used in research. Then in the context of American law systems, it becomes clear that it is often difficult to see the relationships among definitions, legislation, and regulations, as imbued with values. For example, various statutes describe conditions under which a reporter has "reason to believe or suspect", "cause to believe", or "probable cause to believe" that injuries have been intentionally caused or have resulted from abuse and neglect (Sussman, 1974). At this time, even though the degree of specificity the definitions contain has provoked a wide range of commentary, and decision makers often do not have the expertise or resources to make good clinical predictions, the Juvenile Court is an experiment in paternalism that replaces the defective or absent parents of its charge with a state- sanctioned substitute in the form of the benevolent judge who exercises all the authority of the perfect father (Krohe, 1993) and turns frequently toward punitive action against parents who transgress the white majority's cherished ideas about family responsibility for children (Farris & Farris, 1975). In effect, many of Korean parents who involved child protective service experienced and came to mandatory counseling stated that under the principle of punishment, American service providers related to physical child abuses often considered them as criminals, had serious mental problems that require long-term governmental involvement and government custody of children. In sum, within Korean cultural values, the meaning of physical child abuse may represent a strong emphasis on responsibility of parents, while within American cultural values the meaning of physical child abuse may reflect clear emphasis on the individual right of child. Korean parents3637 mean that children are a part of their lives and they are considered as interdependent or more dependent in their age, while white American society regards children as separate individuals and considers them as independent. Theoretical Perspectives of Child Abuse Treatment & PreventionThe theoretical perspectives of child abuse treatment and prevention are reviewed in terms of modernism, postmodernism, and multiculturalism in order to select the theoretical perspectives that fit into the study. Modern PerspectiveThe initial conceptualization of child abuse saw abuse as the result of the personal psychological pathologies of parents and other caretakers. The medical model implied that if the pathology could be cured, the parent would no longer be at risk of being an abuser (Gell, 1973, 1992). The medical model proved too narrow. The medical model is based on the sociological and scientific paradigms that view reality as empirically objective and knowable and reflect observer- independent epistemology (Goolishian, 1990). Goolishian (1990) believed that this empirical and epistemological bias is the basis for the normative implications of most modern theories of therapy. More recent developments in so-called systemic therapies have attempted to develop an alternative conceptual framework that bypasses this empiricism, shifting to a more cybernetically oriented theory. But it has been concluded that there are serious limits in the cybernetic paradigm as it informs therapy practice (Anderson & Goolishian, 1990). These limits are principally in the mechanic metaphor underlying cybernetic feedback theory. Goolishian (1990) noted within this metaphor there is little opportunity to deal with the experience of an individual. 3738Other important social factors, such as poverty, social isolation, stress, and experiencing violence as a child, appeared to be related to the risk of being an abuser. Thus, in the late 1970s, the medical model was replaced with a new, multiple-dimensional causal model.The social-psychological approach explains child abuse in one of two ways. The "tipping point" model, as Gells (1992) pointed out, holds that additional stresses or other problems build up until a "tipping point" pushes a parent from being a caring one to a parent who cannot control anger and/or aggression. Overstressed parents either lash out and physically abuse their children, and/or neglect them.The second view is a "deficit model", that assumes some parents lack personal, social or economic resources to be effective, and that by adding the needed resources, such as psychological counseling, or parents’ education, they can meet their own needs as well as their children's. Both models assume that children need only be removed from their parents while they are at risk of harm and that they should be returned as soon as their parents can care for them adequately.Since the 1980s, the social work profession's theories of therapy are rapidly moving toward a more hermeneutic and interpretive position (Saari, 1991). This is a view that emphasizes "meaning" as created and experienced by individuals in conversation with one another. A multicultural perspective within the social work profession reflects this paradigm shifting toward understanding a world which is created through interaction; not merely interaction through the senses, but interaction through the domain of language. By language, we refer specifically to the linguistically mediated and contextually relevant meaning that is interactively generated (Goolishian & Winterman, 1988). For Gergen (1985), reality is negotiated meaning and does not occur outside the context of human linguistic interaction. Postmodern PerspectiveOver the last decade, there is an escalating paradigm debate taking place among social work scholars about the nature, creation, and control of social work knowledge. On one side of 3839 the debate are proponents of the positivistic scientific approach to social work. On the other side of the debate are those who are advocating what they consider a more humanistic model of social work, and they are proposing various alternative scientific paradigms, one of which is constructivism.For nearly forty years most psychotherapies (individual, marital, group, or family) have been based on the sociological and scientific paradigms that view reality as empirically objective. Within this position is the embedded assumption that the scientist is merely a passive observer of events, that is, events as external in their meaning and independent of the observer. Foundational therapy concepts such as stability, homeostasis, lack of change, fixation, and differentiation, as well as prevailing theories of pathology and treatment reflect this observer- independent bias. Because of this bias, the theories become normative in nature. Mental health practitioners have been increasingly impressed with the limitations of the physical, cybernetic, biological, and sociological epistemologies that inform their clinical field (Goolishian & Anderson, 1990). In the postmodern spirit of the 1990s, a family member's experience of therapy might be one of a collaborative and empowering venture, with a solution evolving naturally out of the conversation, rather than being prescribed or directed (Anderson, 1997; Anderson & Goolishian, 1988, 1992). Postmodernism refers to paradigms based upon a social consciousness of multiple belief systems and multiple perspectives. In their place, realities which are inter-subjective, diverse and multi-voices are highlighted. In contrast, modernism refers to paradigms based upon rational, objective/positivist/empirical traditions (Anderson, 1997; Gergen, 1985, 1991; Gonzalez,Biever, & Gardner, 1994). Postmodernism includes modernism as one broadly agreed upon point of view. Realities that are seen to be 'objective', 'singular' and 'universal' are no more credible. The basic limitation in the positivistic scientific epistemologies is, in fact, their very scientism. This kind of scientism that denotes differing meaning from science leaves the social scientist unable to conceptualize the humans studied as subjects embedded in cultural practice 3940 and in conversation with each other. It prevents us from seeing our subjects and clients as people who think and construe, understand and misunderstand, interpret and guess, have agency and intention (Taylor, 1986). It fails to recognize that we reflect on the meaning we produce with each other. In making this theoretical shift, clinicians and theorists are committed to joining the current intellectual debate regarding the impossibility of using scientism for understanding of human beings, and to moving toward a more hermeneutic and interpretive position regarding data of the field. This is a view that emphasizes "meaning as created and experienced by individuals in conversation with one another". This position does not rely on decontextualized facts. Rather, it insists on the inseparability of fact, value, detail, context, observation, and theory. This emphasizes local explanation, the actual dialogue that takes place in the ordinary situation of daily conversation rather than the universal, and other broad, community understanding. Constructivism and the study of narratives are therefore the study of meaning-making (Brandell,1996).Since the 1980s, therapies based on constructivist and social constructionist metatheory have been proliferating within social work and allied professions (Brandell, 1996; Dean, 1993; Laird, 1995). Assessing and understanding the interplay of cognitive (including affective responses) and social processes and using this information to collaborate with clients in their reconstruction of meanings (cognitive changes) about social situations and changes in their consequent behaviors are at the heart of most constructivist approaches to psychotherapy.The area of meaning is central to clinical social work treatment. Scott (1989) also argued that "the interpretation of meaning is a core element in social work practice" (p. 40). Scott noted (1989) social workers are involved in searching for the meaning of events and behavior. For the practitioner this is not only an intellectual endeavor but a precondition of action. In some important respects this is akin to the ethnographer who seeks to understand the culture of another society and, in order to do this, critically examines the frames of reference internalized from his 4041 or her own culture (Scott, 1989). Scott (1989) argued that understanding the client's interpretation of the world is the defining characteristic of social work; that the interpretation of meaning is a core element in social work practice. In Clinical Social Work Treatment: How Does It work? Saari (1986) proposed that treatment has to do with the creation, modification, and maintenance of a meaning system that could serve as a platform from which the client could make determinations about behavioral choices (Saari, 1991). In contrast to Erikson, who believed that identity has a static characteristic, Saari posits that identity is a constantly changing meaning system, which is organized through a narrative in which an individual makes sense of the events in his/her life. Saari (1994) states that identity is "a personal theory about oneself, the world and their relationship to each other..."(p.4-5). The narrative provides a sense of continuity through the conjunction of the many elements of experience of the external world and the inner life of the individual.An individual's narrative is the medium by which he or she puts self-knowledge into a form that can be understood. A narrative is always evaluative and ex post facto rather than representing an "objective reality". Saari (1991) stated that there are six elements that identify the narrative process: (a) story (has implication of how an individual thinks and the level of one's self esteem), (b) people (provides a description of an individual's motivation and intentions regarding human interactions), (c) plot (indicates the way the individual gives meaning to events and the relationship of cause and effect of events), (d) fantasy (describes the ability of the individual to imagine and adapt), (e) place (reflects the effect of social structures upon an individual and/or how a person locates himself or herself in the cultural environment), (f) pattern and rhythm (relates the importance of time and the flow of the individual's life process). Saari's (1993) term, "identity complexity" refers to the experience of the self as multifaceted. The more complex and coherent view an individual has of him/herself and the 4142 world, "the more possibilities the individual can envision in any given situation, [and] the more alternatives that person can consider in the selection of behaviors" (p.18).Sarri's concept of identity complexity in the creation of meaning theory presents a focus for a possible study which investigates the meaning of physical child abuse that Korean American parents and families create regarding their narrative identities, and how they practice child rearing and caring as life choices. In Saari's (1991) theoretical framework, the clinical situation is viewed as an opportunity for the social worker to create a relationship which helps the client to participate in a shared meaning system. The goal of this collaboration is to help the client to participate in the shared meaning system of culture. Meaning creation is a form of treatment which seeks to help the client establish a differentiated system of meaning or theory about him/herself that serves as a basis from which the client can make determinations about behavior choices. The focus of meaning creation is not curative and does not focus on causation. It centers treatment on where the client is present, and the goals of the client for the future. The primary activity of treatment in this framework is the establishment of a collaborative alliance with the client termed a "concordance." The concordance is a culture which is constructed by the client and therapist. The content for this relationship is derived from three sources: (a) the story the client brings in from his or her life, (b) the new data that emerges from the interaction of the therapist and the client, and (c) the therapist's expert lens. The client's story is a narrative which requires the client to contemplate himself or herself and is inherently evaluative. The interactions of the client and therapist offer a new perspective on the meaning that the client has for a particular experience. The therapist's fusion of scientific knowledge into the clients' experience helps to further expand the meaning of the client's experiences. The client's new meaning construction in therapy is important in understanding and explaining the nature and context of therapy and human problems in a multicultural society which4243 needs identity complexity and an appreciation for the diversity of cultural meaning systems as an essential foundation of healthy social functioning (Saari, 1991, 1993). The process of developing new meaning constructions for Korean American families facing the experience of child abuse is viewed as neither linear nor unidimensional, but as orthogonal and multidimensional. According to Suinn, Khoo, and Ahuna (1995) "a linear, unidimensional model is an either-or model, following a singular development while an orthogonal, multidimensional model that includes biculturalism permits a both-and view" (p. 140). This multidimensional view of the process of developing new meaning constructions is consistent with Goolishian's view of therapy as language system. Goolishian's model suggests a way of understanding how Korean American families re-punctuate experience of physical child abuse within the therapeutic conversation and questions. He emphasized the process of new meaning constructions from "first-order" cybernetics to "second order" cybernetics or from a single circuit to the bigger circuit.The Emerging Multicultural Perspective within Social Work ProfessionThe United States is often referred to as "a country of immigrants." The most preferred immigrants and refugees were traditionally from Western and Northern European countries, but a combination of manpower needs and international migration pressures led to an influx, first of eastern and southern Europeans, and, more recently, of Third World migrants (Christensen, 1992). The social work profession has not adequately reflected the multicultural and multiracial nature of American society, either in manpower or in training programs.Over the last decades there has been a growing body of the literature which characterizes social work practice with diverse ethnic minorities as being in transition, and simultaneously reaffirming the needs for developing models for ethnically competent practice (Gibson, 1983). The focus of interest was upon issues such as the relevancy of treatment approaches for 4344 minorities based on a mainstream frame of reference (Latting & Zundel, 1986; Trader, 1977); premature termination of service (Sue, 1977); minority underutilization of services and treatment technology (Lorenzo & Alder, 1984), establishing rapport and developing relationship in cross- cultural encounters (Kagwa, 1976; Toupin, 1980); and implications of these issues for developing appropriate service delivery (Lin & Lin, 1978; Owan, 1982), as well as skills, knowledge, and methods of ethnically competent practice (Chau, 1991).What the literature has revealed is that the foundation of ethnically competent practice with minority individuals is a multicultural perspective that attends to the cultural values and sociocultural reality of these peoples. The following examination presents an understanding of the ideology and theoretical bases of ethnically competent practice, which provide a framework within which to understand the nature of methodological and programmatic challenges facing practitioners.Ideological PremisesThree distinct perspectives have provided the ideology that shaped and influenced social work response to minority needs. The cultural deficit perspective of the 1950s and 1960s, which views any variations of cultural patterns from mainstream norms as deficit or deviant, dictates that such deficiency must be corrected. Shaped as it was by this ideology, social work subscribed to the functions of social control in its practice with ethnic minorities. The emphasis was to modify individual behavior and socialize or acculturate minority groups members into the mainstream culture.The minority perspective which gained ascendance during the decade of the civil rights movement and the Great Society programs, has raised the consciousness of social work in its commitment to the well-being of subordinated groups (Montiel & Wong, 1983). While a minority perspective has helped to address important issues of equity and justice, it provides little regard for cultural differences that have an impact on minority situations, needs, and service delivery. Neither does the minority perspective describe or explain the nature of minorities in the context 4445 of family, policy, economy, and its own system of informal institutions (Montiel & Wong, 1983, p. 113). Continued commitment to cultural diversity, however, has sustained the effects of many concerned social work practitioners and scholars toward developing an alternative conceptualization by which issues of culture, ethnicity, and race become incorporated as an integral part of the helping process (Chau, 1991). Thus in multicultural practice, the last decade introduced such integrative frameworks as Wynette Devore and Elfried Schlesinger's (1991) ethnic-sensitive perspective, John Speigel's (1982) ecological model of family cultural transition, further developments of the ethnosystems framework and the "dual perspective" in which to view ethnic minority cultures, and David Sue's (1981) ethnic/cultural identity theory of cross-cultural counseling.One last major work in the 1980's is David Reiss's (1981) study of how families construct reality in family culture. Their consideration of the development and power of family cultural "world views" as a major variable in family problem-solving has significant implications for family-centered multicultural social work practice. As Hartman and Laird (1983) suggest, ecosystems of problem-solving practice, their conceptions of family culture themes, as related to family world views (what Reiss called the "family paradigm") and as regulated and changed in family rituals, "hold considerable promise for providing unifying frameworks for family study and research and for practice as well" (p.104). Liser (1987) argues that an ethnocultural perspective - one that encourages knowing about the total experience of a defined ethnocultural group, rather than understanding mainly in terms of its powerlessness, struggle, and oppression, would be a more appropriate perspective for ethnically competent practice (p.32).Evidently, this perspective is a departure from the previous view of ethnic minorities as passive victims of society. According to Liser (1987), an ethnocultural perspective helps "to assure that the [ethnic] groups are perceived in terms of their strengths, vitality, and ability to prevail" (Ibid). Not only does this perspective provide a much stronger value commitment to 4546 cultural and human diversities which determines the goals and method for effective programs and interventions, but it also enhances the systematic development and utilization of greater ethnocultural knowledge as a basis for ethnically competent practice (Chau, 1991).The question concerning whether it is cultural difference (ethnocultural perspective) or structural deficiency (minority perspective) that accounts for the problems experienced by minority individuals is still debated (Liser, 1987). The 1990s impels social workers in the United States to increase and refine their competence for multicultural family centered practice (Anderson, 1992). Further, the inclusion of diversity has been mandated by accreditation standards in the social work curriculum since the early 1970's (Bracy, 1996, p.1). Interestingly enough, for the past several years, to address ethnic minority mental health issues, the National Institute of Mental Health (N.I.M.H.) has supported ethnic minority social work mental health clinical training programs. Theoretical BasesThree sets of concepts provide the theoretical bases for ethnic competence practice with cultural diversity. The first set of concepts include Devore and Schlesinger's concept of "ethnic reality" as ways of thinking about diverse peoples (1987); Norton's "dual perspective," suggesting that ethnic minorities are engulfed by the expectations and norms of both the dominant and the ethnic cultural environments (Norton, 19780); and Chau's "sociocultural dissonance"-the stress and strain arising out of cultural incongruence or conflict of living in two cultural worlds (Chau, 1989). These concepts offer a conceptual means for viewing and understanding the minority experience and an alternative way for explaining and defining the needs of ethnic and racial group members (Chau, 1991). A second set of ideas illustrates the role of practitioners for effective practice in multicultural environments. There is Green's view that ethnicity is most manifest at the boundary of intergroup interaction, and the suggestion that a critical role for social workers is as boundary 4647 mediators (Green, 1982). The concept of "bicultural socialization" (De Anda, 1984) suggests the roles of cultural translator, cultural mediator, and cultural model for the practitioner to facilitate minority group members' interaction with mainstream culture and affirmation of their ethnic identity.A third set of concepts has been guided by the contention advanced by Lum (1982), that there is minority practice, knowledge, and a set of values held in common by all "people of color" regardless of their special cultures: (1) "cultural pluralism", which embraces a mutual respect for cultural differences among racial and ethnic groups, and (2) "cultural ethnocentrism: which views one's own culture as superior and the single standard against which other cultures are judged (Chau, 1991). Together, the three sets of concepts converge to form an ethnocultural perspective that highlights the importance of culture awareness, ethnic sensitivity, ethnic minority need and experience as well as appropriate practitioner roles. The perspective provides a value-knowledge basis for developing strategies and skills essential for culturally competent social work (Chau, 1991). As Landrine (1992) explained, the culturally sensitive treatment of minorities entails assisting the client in finding not a referential self, but a new social identity, a new role, a new self-for-family or being-for-others. This treatment goal works within, rather than against, the grain of the culture's understandings. Such treatment necessitates treating the family or relationship in which the new role will exist, and will inevitably entail a redefinition and re- negotiation of the needs and goals of the socially and culturally constituted relationship of relevance. Alternatively, therapy may entail or necessitate [a re-negotiation of the construction of the self] by all members of relationship, for all members of the relationship. Multicultural Perspective on Child Abuse 4748Child abuse emerged from a relatively obscure radiological diagnosis to a matter of public and professional concern in the United States in the early 1960s ( Korbin, 1987). Yet, there has been an ongoing need for an alternative conceptual framework that inform a therapy with CPS marginalized minority clients moving from a hierarchical/authoritative and directive "doing something" about a criminal or quasi-criminal situation in a family to a horizontal, egalitarian, and collaborative effort to understand the therapeutic process more richly. In the current intellectual context, as professionals working with child protective services (CPS) minority Korean immigrant families, we need to ask ourselves constantly, why and how these families are judged to "fail". Why, in the light of our knowledge of child-rearing and child- discipline diversity in the 1990's do we act as if there is a normal ideal that they must live up to? Korbin (1987) maintains that cross-cultural variability in child discipline and child-rearing beliefs and behaviors makes it evident that there is not a universal standard for good child care nor for child abuse and neglect. Failure to allow for a cultural perspective in defining child abuse promotes an ethnocentric position in which one's own set of cultural beliefs and practices are presumed to be preferable, and indeed superior, to all others. Culturally appropriate definitions of child abuse require attention to both the viewpoint of the culture in question, termed the emic perspective, the viewpoint of an insider and the viewpoint of an outsider, or the etic perspective. An understanding of both emic and etic perspectives is necessary to sort out the impact of the cultural context in which child abuse behavior takes on meaning (Korbin, 1987). The CPS clients from an ethnic minority culture is by definition different and is more likely to be assigned a prejudicial and pejorative label by the majority culture. The author argues that the current therapeutic culture involves the realities of multiple therapeutic systems with emphasis on pathologizing or dichotomizing, victimizing, and authoritative or interventive focuses. Therapy language within the discourse is a deficiency-based language and is assumed to represent behavior and mental reality accurately (Anderson, 1997).4849According to Wells (1995) "child abuse and neglect are legal, social, and cultural constructs that are inextricably linked to time and space. Definitions of abuse and neglect vary not only internationally but also among U.S. states. In addition, definitions mandating legal intervention serve quite a different purpose than social constructions or definitions used in research" (p.347). Korbin (1987) succinctly presented the dilemma of cultural context and made the case for cultural competence in evaluating abuse and neglect. Korbin (1987) stated:“Failure to allow for a cultural perspective... promotes an ethnocentric position in which one's own ...cultural beliefs and practices are presumed superior to all others. Nevertheless, a stance of extreme cultural relativism, in which all judgments... are suspected... may justify a lesser standard of care for some children” (p.25). By understanding both the viewpoints of the insider and the outsider, one is less likely to jump to unwarranted conclusions. As Korbin (1987) noted, episodes of abuse are often described as discipline that is out of control, which endorsement of physical punishment was associated with higher reports of child abuse. Addressing a cultural sensitivity or competence issue, a cross- sectional interview survey study of 364 mothers was conducted by Ahn (1990) to develop empirical knowledge that would help professionals take culture into account in the prevention, identification, and treatment of child abuse among six ethnic/racial groups (African American, Cambodian, Caucasian, Hispanic, Korean, and Vietnamese) in regard to appropriate expressions of intimacy and discipline in family life. The study found that there is great ethnic diversity in attitudes toward family intimacy and discipline owing to unique historical and cultural backgrounds of each ethnic group. Generally, Asian mothers tended to be most receptive of physical intimacy in family life while African Americans and Hispanics were least receptive. African Americans, Koreans and Vietnamese were most accepting of physical discipline while Cambodians and Hispanics were least accepting. In the literature discussing Korean families and the child welfare system, many suggestions emerge for how to plan and carry out culturally responsive services that provide protection for children while strengthening families. Song (1986) suggested that alternative intervention 4950 methods, (i.e., a method more in line with the culturally embedded method), instead of institutional intervention methods. Given different cultural values, a cross-cultural comparison of physical child abuse meanings, child rearing practices, and family relationships seems both necessary and critical to developing intervention processes and tactics in the clinical settings in which the highly value- laden nature of clinical judgments are involved in the formulation that a given child is "abused". Conceptual Framework Guiding the StudyThe study will focus on three aspects: 1) the process of change in clients' meaning systems/descriptive systems of physical child abuse problem; 2) the impact of the changing meaning system on clients' actions; and 3) the nature of the dialogical conversational process between a therapist and clients in a mutual endeavor toward new possibilities. Postmodern philosophical frameworks will guide the theoretical perspective of this study. The concepts of social construction theory, hermeneutic theory (both interpretive perspectives), and narrative theory will become the center points of my conceptual underpinnings in general. Specifically, Anderson and Goolishian's (1997) theory of therapy as dialogical conversation will formulate the study. Social Construction Theory "Social construction theory (SCT) is the idea that reality is not independently 'out there' but construed through collective meaning making" (Anderson, 1997, p. Xiii). SCT has the distinctive nature of way of seeing the world and human experiences as follows. SupplementationGergen (1994) offers the concept of supplementation as a descriptor for the ways in which the coordination of our utterances and actions engenders meaning. Supplementation is the reciprocal process in which one person supplements or responds to another person's utterances or 5051 actions. The potential for meaning in the dyad develops through the supplementation process. Each person of The dyad is embedded in a range of other relationships-previous, present, and future-and the multiple contexts of those relationships influences the supplementation and meaning developed within the dyad (Anderson, 1997). Joint ActionSimilar to Gergen's analysis of social construction are the ideas of Shotter (1993), who refers to his account as a rhetorical-responsive version. He suggests that common to all version of social constructionism is "the dialectical emphasis upon both the contingency and the creativity of human interaction-on our making of, and being made by, our social realities" (1993, p.13). Shotter, who is historically influenced by the later work of Ludwig Wittgenstein and the ideas of Michael Billig, Mikhail Bakhtin, L.S. Vygotsky, and V.N. Volosinov, is particulary occupied with the self-other relationship and the ways in which people spontaneously coordinate their everyday mutual activities, in "how speakers and listeners seem to be able to create and maintain between themselves...an extensive background context of living and lived (sensuously structured) relations, within which they are sustained as the kind of human beings they are" (1993, p.12). Shotter defines joint action as follows: "All actions by human beings involved with others in a social group in this fashion are dialogically or responsively linked in some way. Both already executed actions and anticipated next possible actions" (1984, pp.52-53). Social Constructionism and ConstructivismSocial constructionism and constructivism are two sources of postmodern paradigm. Social constructionism and constructivism both reject the notion that the mind reflects reality and advances the idea that human construct reality. Both would agree with philosopher Richard Palmer's assertion that "one's view of man (person) is function of one's assumptions about reality"(p.16). Although there are similarities, there is a primary difference in how each arrives at and views this construction (Anderson, 1997). Constructivism and social constructivism arose from different intellectual traditions. Early constructivism was associated with the works of the 5152 developmentalist Jean Piaget (1954) and the personal construct psychologist George Kelly (1955). Later constructivism, often called radical constructivism, is primarily associated with the physicist Heinz von Foerster (1982; 1984), psychologist Ernst von Glasersfeld (1987) and Paul Watzlawick (1984), and the biologist Humburto Maturana (1978). All share an identity as cyberneticians (Anderson, 1997). Radical constructivism regards reality as the construction of the mind, emphasizing the autonomy of the self and the individual as the meaning maker. An experiencing individual's biological cognitive structures and processes are critical to constructivism, for instance, the relationships of inner mental processes to experiences of the external world. In contrast, social constructionism emphasizes the interactional and communicative context as the meaning maker--the mind is relational and the development of meaning is discursive (Anderson, 1997). That is, constructivism, Gergen (1994) warned, is "lodged within the tradition of Western individualism" (p.68), "whereas social constructionism moves away from the individual constructing mind and challenges the notion of the autonomous individual. The individual is no longer the discrete object of understanding nor the creator of meaning. Mind does not create of meaning; instead, mind is meaning" (Anderson, 1997, p.43). This emphasis is what Shotter (1993) referred to as "conversational realities." Social constructionism moves beyond the social contextualization of behavior and simple relativity. Context is thought of as a multi- relational and linguistic domain in which behavior, feelings, emotions, and understandings are communal. They occur within a plurality of ever-changing, complex webs of relationships and social processes, and within local and broader linguistic domains/practice/discourses (Anderson, 1997).The author argues that social constructionist ideas may be helpful in implementing increased recommendations of consideration of ethnic, linguistic, and cultural factors in the provision of appropriate social work treatment with Korean American families facing experience of physical child abuse. Social constructionism is compatible with the thinking of those taking the5253 multicultural perspective in the social work profession (Laird, 1995). Gonzalez, Biever & Gardner (1994) note that social constructionism and multiculturalism are similar in many areas, yet the ideas of the former have not been extensively applied to the latter. Social constructivism can provide a framework for examining and understanding social and cultural influences which blend well with the multicultural perspective. This postmodern approach lends itself to support the efforts of the multicultural perspective to respect the merits of multiple belief systems and multiple understandings as legitimate considerations in therapy. In regard to therapy, postmodern ideas shift to thinking of the therapist in a very overt way. There are no secret conversations behind client's backs. The therapist is included fully as a participant in the therapeutic system, making his or her ideas about the therapy known to the clients. The goal of therapy is to continue the conversation with emphasis on process rather than goal, and distinguish aspects that were potentially available, but previously not examined, until a new narrative is developed (Lax, 1992). Through the interview, attention is given to who can be talking with whom, about what, and how (Anderson, 1991). The therapist is always looking for other ways of introducing differences, whether through a story, reframe, metaphor or rephrasing of a single word. Drawing on postmodern theory, anthropology, and the ideas of social constructionist psychologist Kenneth Gergen (Gergen, 1985, 1991; Gergen & Kaye, 1992), among others, Anderson and Goolishian have developed a number of new metaphors for a postmodern therapeutic stance (Laird, 1993). Therapy itself is reconceptualized as "conversation" or "dialogue," drawn from the social constructionist notion that theories, ideas, concepts, memories, and so on are always mediated through language in the intersubjective space between people (Laird, 1993). Anderson and Goolishian have challenged the conception of mental health professional as "expert," suggesting instead that the clinician should take a "not-knowing," de- expertized position. In their most recently published work (1992), the role of the therapist is seen 5354 as akin to that of the ethnographer, an infinitely curious (Cecchin, 1987), respectful stranger, his or her voice or ideas no more privileged than any other party to the conversation (Laird, 1993). Hermeneutic Theory"Hermeneutic theory is the art of interpretation, newly excavated from the past" (Anderson,1997,p. Xiii). Hermeneutics is one of the earliest questionings of the Cartesian theory of the dualistic nature of knowledge, of the separation often observed and the observer. Historically, hermeneutics dates back to the seventeenth century, when it emerged originally as an approach to analyze and ensure appropriate interpretation of the biblical text and later literary texts (Anderson, 1997). By the late eighteenth century, and largely under the influence of philosophers Friedrich Wilhelm Schleiermacher and Wilhelm Dilthey in the nineteenth century, hermeneutics had broken from this text tradition; it had become an approach to interpreting and understanding human behavior and emerged as a "genuine philosophical discipline and general theory of the social and human sciences (Mueller-Vollmer, 1989,p.ix). With the emergence of contemporary twentieth-century philosophical hermeneutics usually associated with the views of thinkers such as Hans-Georg Gadamer, Jurgen Habermas, Martin Heidegger, and Paul Ricoeur, hermeneutics began to take a postmodern turn (Madison, 1988; Palmer, 1987). Broadly speaking, hermeneutics concerns itself with understanding and interpretation: understanding of the meaning of a text or discourse, including human emotion and behavior, and understanding as a process that is influenced by the belief, assumptions, and intentions of the interpreter. If from a hermeneutic perspective all understanding is interpretive, then one can never reach a true understanding; a speaker's meaning cannot be fully understood, much less duplicated by another person. The truth is not revealed; there is no one right account of an event; and there is no one correct interpretation. Each account, each interpretation is only one version of the truth. Truth is constructed through the interaction of the participants and it is contextual. Meaning is informed by the interpreter's forestructure of understanding, in Gadamer's 5455(1975) word, prejudices, as well as the fusion of horizons (Gadamer, p.272) between reader and text (in therapy domain, substitute "people involved" for reader and text") (Gadamer, p.338). From this hermeneutic perspective understanding is linguistically, historically, and culturally situated; that is, "language and history are always both conditions and limits of understanding (Wachterhauser, 1986,p.6). Understanding is circular because it always involves reference to the known; the part (the local) always refers to the whole (the global) and conversely the whole always refers to the part--what Heidegger (1962) the hermeneutic circle. The process of understanding is the process of immerging ourselves in the other's horizon, and vice versa-- each being open to the other. Hermeneutic "assumes that problems in understanding are problems of a temporary failure to understand a person's or group's intentions, a failure which can be overcome by continuing the dialogue, interpretive process" (Warneke, 1987,p.120). Anderson (1997) resonates with psychiatrist Richard Chessick's (1990) opinion that hermeneutics suggests that "meaning in dyadic relationship is generated by language ad resides not in the mind of individual speakers or writers but in the dialogue itself (p.269), in Gergen's (1994) word, a "relational theory of human meaning (p.264).Narrative Theory"Narrative theory is implying that human events only become intelligible by being storied" (Anderson, 1997, p. Xiii). Conversation and dialogue assume a narrative form. Narrative is a way we use language to relate to others. It is a discursive schema with culturally driven rules and conventions that provide structure and coherence to the fragments of our life events and experiences. We organize, account for, make sense of, and experiences through narratives or stories (Anderson, 1997). From a narrative analogy, a therapist participates with a client in the telling, retelling, hearing, and creating of the client's well-being and problem narratives.Narratives, or stories, involve both content and process: the facts of, telling of, listening of, and interacting with. From a postmodern perspective, both content and process are critical. Much5556 of the successful use of a professional's content expertise depends upon process expertise. The aim of the latter is to connect, collaborate, and construct mutually acceptable reality with the client, in psychologist Sylvia London's (personal communication, July 1995) word, the creation of "a community of shared resources." The relationship becomes less hierarchical, less authoritative, more egalitarian, and more mutual. It emphasizes a shared selection of topics, mutual control of the interview, less client uncertainty, and less interference with the clients' conceptualization of the problem (Anderson, 1997). Collaborative Language Systems Approach to TherapyBoth Anderson's and Goolishian's recent developing theories of therapy are rapidly moving toward a more hermeneutic and interpretive position. This current position leans heavily on the view that human action takes place in a reality of understanding that is created through social construction and dialogue (Anderson and Goolishian, 1982, 1992; Anderson et al., 1986). From this position, people live, and understand their living, through socially constructed narrative realities that give meaning and organization to their experience. Goolishian's current narrative position leans heavily on the following premises that reflect the foregoing postmodern philosophy underlying the theories for the study (Anderson and Goolishian, 1988, 1992; Goolishian and Anderson, 1987, 1990).1. Human systems are language-generating and, simultaneously, meaning-generating systems. Communication and discourse define social organization. A socio-cultural system is the product of social communication, rather than communication being a product of structural organization. The therapeutic system is such a linguistic system;2. Meaning and understanding are socially constructed. We do not arrive at, or have, meaning and understanding until we take communicative action, some meaning generating discourse or dialogue within the system for which the communication has relevance. A 5657 therapeutic system is a system for which the communication has a relevance specific to its dialogical exchange; 3. Any system in therapy is one that has dialogically coalesced around some 'problem.' In this sense, the therapy system is a system that is distinguished by the evolving co-created meaning , the 'problem,' rather than an arbitrary social structure, such as family. The therapeutic system is a problem-organizing, problem dis-solving system;4. Therapy is a linguistic event that takes place in what we call a therapeutic conversation through dialogue, a crisis-crossing of ideas in which new meanings are continually evolving toward the "dis-solving" of problems, and thus the dissolving of the therapy system and hence the problem-organizing problem-dissolving system;5. The role of the therapist is that of a conversational artist whose expertise is in the arena of creating a space for and facilitating a dialogical conversation as a participant-observer and a participant-facilitator;6. The therapist exercises this art through the use of conversational or therapeutic questions. The therapeutic question is the primary instrument to facilitate the development of conversational space and the dialogical process from a position of 'not-knowing' or narrative posture rather than a knowing position or paradigmatic posture that is informed by method and that demands specific answers based on pre-held theoretical narratives of therapist; 7. Problems we deal with in therapy are actions that express our human narratives in such a way that they diminish our sense of agency and personal liberation. A problem situation is one which produces a concerned or alarmed objection to a state of affairs for which we are unable to define competent action (agency) for ourselves. In this sense, problems exist in language and problems are unique to the narrative context from which they derive their meaning; and8. Change in therapy is the dialogical creation of new narrative and therefore the opening of opportunity for new agency. The transformational power of narrative rests in its capacity to re- relate the events of our lives in the context of new and different meanings. We live in and through5758 the narrative identities that we develop in conversation with one another. Therapy is simply the expertise to participate in this process. These premises place heavy emphasis on the role of language, conversation, self, and story as they influence our clinical theory and work. This position leans heavily on the assumption that human action takes place in a reality that is created through social construction and dialogue (Anderson, 1987; Anderson, Goolishian, Pulliam, & Winterman, 1986; Anderson, Goolishian, & Winterman, 1986; Anderson & Goolishian, 1988; Goolishian & Anderson, 1987, 1990). This is the world of human language and discourse. Goolishian et al discussed these ideas about systems of meaning under the rubric of problem-determined systems, problem-organizing dis-solving systems, and language systems (Anderson & Goolishian, 1988; Anderson, Goolishian, Pulliam, &Winterman, 1986; Anderson, Goolishian, & Winterman, 1986; Anderson & Goolishian, 1988, 1990, 1992). These premises combine to inform a therapy that reflects a move from a hierarchical to a horizontal, egalitarian, and collaborative effort. They permit and inform a therapist position freed from having objective knowledge, resulting in the therapist positioned as a co-participant in the co-creation of new therapeutic realities. It has become possible within this thinking to move from a therapy that is interventionist toward therapy that relies on the expertise and integrity of the clients. It is a set of constructs that permits us to move from a therapy based on concepts of pathology and disease to a therapy that is simply dialogical and semantic in nature. This theory of therapy emphasizes the socially created narratives that define our identities and that are central in organizing and coordinating our mutual social behavior (Goolishian & Anderson, 1990). Thus a problem exists only if there is communicative action-complaint or concern. It is a statement, a linguistic position that someone takes. The problem-organizing system view does not imply that there is such a thing as "a" problem, that is, consensus around a definition that reflects an objectified pathology. Problems are linguistic events around which there is often conflicting 5859 interpretation. Neither does it imply that the therapist and the client work toward a consensus- problem definition in therapy. There can be as many problem definitions as there are members of a problem-organizing system. The first step toward a collaborative problem definition is making room for and grasping the client's view of the problem-focus on the history and development of ideas of problem. Goolishian emphasized the always changing, evolving, and dialogical basis of the story of the self. In taking this position, Goolishian emphasizes the therapist position of not-knowing in the understanding that develops through therapeutic conversation as a dialogical mode of "in there together" process. From this perspective, the lived experience of child abuse is viewed as "action that expresses our human narratives in a way that diminishes our sense of agency and personal liberation". Further, the problem dealt with in therapy for the study, physical child abuse, can be thought of as emanating from social narratives and self-definitions that do not yield an agency that is effective for the tasks implicit in their self-narratives. Thus therapy provides opportunity for the development of new and different narratives that permit an expanded range of alternative agency for 'problem' dis-solution. In this process the newly co-authored narrative understanding must be in the ordinary language of the client. A therapeutic conversation is no more than a slowly evolving and detailed, concrete, individual life story stimulated by the therapist's taking of the not-knowing position and the therapist's curiosity to learn (Goolishian, 1990). The therapist simply becomes part of the circle of meaning or hermeneutic circle which refers to dialogical process (Goolishian, 1990). Therapy always begins with a question based on the therapist's preconceptions, the already created meaning of physical child abuse. The meaning that emerges in therapy is understood from this whole (the therapist's preconceptions about physical child abuse), but this whole is, in turn, understood from the emerging parts (the client's story). Therapist and client move back and forth within this circle of meaning. In this process, new meaning emerges for both therapist and client (Anderson & Goolishian, 1992). 5960Modernism and Postmodernism in Therapy These assumptions have profound implications in every human endeavor and separate postmodern collaborative philosophy and practice from modernist approaches in terms of therapy system, therapy process, and therapist's position along a continuum that implies a move (Anderson, 1997, pp.4-5). 6061From Modernism To PostmodernismA social system defined by role A system that is contextually and structure based and a product of social communicationA system composed of an indi- A system composed of vidual/a couple/a family who are in relationship through languageA therapist-driven hierarchical A therapist-assumed philosophical stance that organization and process invites a collaborative relationship/processA dualistic relationship between A collaborative partnership between people with an expert and a nonexpert different perspectives/expertiseA therapist as a knower who discovers A therapist as a not-knower who is and collects information/data a being-informed positionA therapist as a content expert A therapist as an expert in creating a dialogical who is a meta-knower of how space/facilitating a dialogical process others should live their lives A therapy focus on top-down A therapy focus on generating possibilities/ knowledge, and a search for causality relying on the contributions/creativity of all participantsA therapist as a knower who is certain A therapist as a not-knower who is uncertain/ about what he or she knows regards knowledge as evolving (or thinks he or she knows) A therapist who operates from A therapist who is public about, shares/ private and privileged assumptions/ reflects knowledge/knowledge/assumptions/thoughts thoughts/questions/opinions A therapist as an interventionist A shared inquiry that relies on with strategic expertise and the expertise of all persons associated across-the-board participating in a conversation skills and techniques A therapist whose intent is to Change or transformation as evolving produce change in another through, and as the natural consequences of a person or member of a system generative dialogue/collaborative relationshipA therapy with people as A therapy with people as multiple, contained, core selves linguistically constructed, relational selvesTherapy as an activity that is A therapist and a client as co-investigator who researched by an investigator participate in creating what they 'find' of other subjects 6162Not-Knowing PositionThe concept of not-knowing is in contrast to therapist understanding that is based in pre- held theoretical narratives. Not-knowing requires that our understandings, explanations, and interpretations in therapy not be limited by prior experiences or theoretically formed truths, and knowledge. This description of the not-knowing position is influenced by hermeneutic and interpretive theories and the related concepts of social constructionism, language, and narrative (Gergen, 1985; Shapiro and Sica, 1984; Shotter and Gergen, 1989; Wachterhauser, 1986). Thus achieving this special kind of therapeutic conversation requires that the therapist adopt a not-knowing position. The not-knowing position entails a general attitude or stance in which the therapist's actions communicate an abundant, genuine curiosity with a need to know more about what has been said, rather than convey preconceived opinions and expectations about the client, the problem, or what must be changed. The therapist, therefore, positions himself or herself in such a way as always to be in the state of being informed by the client. In not-knowing the therapist adopts an interpretive stance that relies on the continuing analysis of experience as it is occurring in context. Such a position allows the therapist always to maintain continuity with the client's position and to grant primary importance to the client's world view, meanings, and understandings. The therapist simply becomes part of the circle of meaning or the hermeneutic circle (for discussions of the circle of meaning or the hermeneutic circle, see Wachterhauser, 1986:23-4; Warnker, 1987: 83-7).To 'not-know' is not to have an unfounded or unexperienced judgment, but refers more widely to the set of assumptions, the meanings, that the therapist brings to the clinical interview, by listening to the full meanings of the client's description of their experience (Anderson and Goolishian, 1992).What Therapeutic Questions Are Not6263Therapeutic questions from a not-knowing position are in many ways similar to so-called Socratic questions. Not-knowing questions bring into the open something unknown, something unforeseen into the realm of possibility. Therapeutic questions are impelled by difference in understanding and are drawn from the future by the as-yet unrealized possibility of a community of knowledge. In asking from this position the therapist is able to move with the 'not-yet-said' (Anderson and Goolishian, 1988, 1992). It is a conversational moving within the sense of what had just been said. It moves with the narrative truth of the client's story rather than challenging it, and remains within the locally developed and locally negotiated meaning system. It is in this local and continuing process of question and answer that a particular understanding or a particular narrative becomes a starting point for the new and 'not-yet-said' (Anderson and Goolishian, 1992).Therapist Role1. Therapist-as-learner: Modernist therapies used with multicultural clientele tend to view the therapist as the expert who conceptualizes the case, and/or the specific treatment plans. Such an approach often sees the therapist as "teacher' who attempts to correct the faulty notions of the clients. In the social constructionist approach the therapist is not the expert in the same way, but assume in Anderson's (1997) word, a "not-knowing stance." Therapist makes every effort to learn the culture as the client sees it. The therapist ascertains not only how clients see themselves as similar to others within their culture, but also how clients see themselves as unique in their beliefs, life-style, behavior, attribution of meanings and so on. A therapist is the expert in engaging and participating with a client in a dialogical process of first-person story-telling (Anderson, 1997). 2. Entertain all ideas: Being a learner, as opposed to an expert in content, presupposes that the therapist is extremely respectful of clients' understandings and positions regarding their presenting problems. All problem explanations and descriptions are viewed as viable and are 6364 taken seriously because they fit for this person. Therapist should allow for more than one answer to a problem and for more one way to arrive at a solution. It is a position of multipartialrity, one in which a therapist takes all sides simultaneously (Anderson, 1997). Therapeutic Process of Dialogical Conversation/Collaborative Narrative Relationship1. Maintain curiosity: In keeping with the role of therapist-as-leaner, the therapist should maintain a strong sense of curiosity about the client's story or problem description (Cecchin, 1987). Anderson & Goolishian (1988) suggests that, "The more quickly a therapist understands people, the less opportunity there is for dialogue, and the more opportunity for misunderstanding"(p.382). Therapy then can become merely a validation of the therapist's views, rather than an expansion of possibilities for the client. 2. Maintain coherence/creating a dialogic space for the client's story: Clients say they want a chance to tell their complete stories. This involves working within a client's reality-his or her language, vocabulary, and metaphor-about the problem and its imagined solutions in the familiar way. It also helps lessen the chance that a therapist's voice might dominate and shape the story to be told and thus preclude a client's version and the development of future versions with helpful nuances (Anderson, 1997). 3. Collaboration between client and therapist: Therapy relies on finding new ways to dialogue about those parts of clients' stories that concern or alarm them. The therapy emphasizes a collaboration between client and therapist, rather than on a one-up/one-down relationship. This dialogical conversation in therapy is distinguished by shared inquiry: the coordinated action of continually responding to and interacting with; of exchanging and discussing ideas, opinions, biases, memories, observations, feelings, emotions, and so forth. In the shared process, the participants are in a fluid mode characterized by being in language together (Anderson & Goolishian, 1988) or an in-there-together, two-way, give-and-take exchange/talking with each other, instead of searching for dysfunctional aspects of each client's responses or talking to each 6465 other (Anderson, 1997; Seikkula, 1995). Kegan's Subject-Object Interview can be used effectively; (c) whether age and gender have an effect on self development, and (d) whether that effect is similar to the one found byReview of Studies of Child Abuse Treatment/PreventionThree features of previous researchers regarding child abuse treatment and prevention are that: (1) the people serving as subjects are viewed as information-processors rather than as information seekers and information-generators (Harre' & Secord, 1972); (2) "by looking at people as reactors to an independent environment, questions concerning how this environment might be a product of individuals are excluded; (3) the picture of the world produced by these studies is static and omits descriptions of the process of individual-environment interaction" (Tyson, 1995, p. 201).In addition, most reported studies of clients' new meaning construction in therapy have been carried in a model of outcome evaluation research (Berg & DeJong, 1996) which did not explore the evolution of the clients' narrative across therapy sessions. Furthermore, the studies published so far are based on samples from clients of African American, Latino, American Indian, and White ancestry, not from Asian American clients.In a related study, Fish (1993) explored whether the security of a mother's internal working model of her life span attachment experience affects the sensitivity of her current interactions with her toddler. The sample for this study consisted of 30 middle-class mother-toddler dyads from multiple sources within the community, primarily mother-toddler play groups. She found the fact that mothers with a secure working model of attachment with their own mother were significantly more sensitive to toddler signals than those mothers with an insecure working model of attachment and differed in their style of narrating their life span attachment experiences. In another study of the development of the self as meaning making, Villegas-Reimers (1996) explored, in a sample of Venezuelan adolescents (a) whether the stage of self development6566 proposed by Kegan are found; (b) whether Kegan's Subject-Object Interview can be used effectively; (c) whether age and gender have an effect on self development, and (d) whether that effect is similar to the one found by whether Kegan and colleagues with samples from the United States. The study which measured "structure" and not "content" found that there are no cultural differences in the structure of self development in this sample but there may be important cross- cultural differences in the content of the interviews. In addition, Catherine E. Walsh’s (1984) quasi-experimental research on the construction of meaning in a second language using word association method, demonstrated that interlanguage conditions produced more semantic interface than intralanguage conditions yet, for those subjects in an intermediate stage of English proficiency, meaning for word in all conditions was often confused (p. Viii).Schellenbach, Monroe, and Merluzzi (1991) tested the effects of situational stress on the components of the cognitive behavioral model, including expectations, interpretations, and behavioral responses to child behaviors. The results showed that "as abuse potential increased, parent responses were judged as more controlling, punishing, rejecting, and aroused; high stress strengthened the magnitude of these responses" (p. 61). Fox and Halbrook's (1993) study suggests that the new meaning construction process of midlife women facing the experience of divorce involved the dismantling of early assumptions and the reconstruction of more appropriate assumptions (p. 143). The findings are consistent with the author's clinical observation of new meaning construction by Korean immigrant parents facing the experience of child abuse. The clinical observation suggested that there exists a three-phase process through which Korean immigrant parents progressed:1. An early phase designated by original assumptions and parental authority oriented;2. A period of disintegration of original assumptions resulting in shattered parental authority;66673. A final phase when the parents were actively involved in reconstructioning new, meaningful assumptions.CHAPTER IIIRESEARCH METHODOLOGYIn this section I will delineate confirmation of the case study, research design, and compatibility between evaluator’s and practitioner’s theories. I will then present the pilot case study, sampling plan, setting, and system used to evaluate treatment. Methods and procedures employed in this study for data collection and data analysis also are presented. The data were evaluated using mainly qualitative methods, along with descriptive statistics.Confirmation of the Case Study MethodIn a literature review offering such a limited selection of case studies, it seems plausible to question why there are so few qualitative inquiries and how the research became so unbalanced. The author's immediate response is that the complexity and time involved in developing an ethnic specific social work treatment for families and then narrating and analyzing the data could be formidable to most social scientists. There also seems to be an aversion among some social scientists to summarizing events which do not always lend themselves to fit snugly into a pre- formulated category.6768Hall (1975) offers a different explanation of this question as he presents his metaphor of the social scientist who uses his measuring instruments as if they were long stethoscopes. Hall suggests that the answer for the researcher is to "walk around the corner, into the house and begin to talk with the people who live there" (p.30). In Rendle's (1983) word, research is dominated by "couch potato" inquiry, where the researcher prefers not to move out of the "armchair" to do his/her research. Thus there appears to be a need to encourage the use of more descriptive observation in our research with human experience. There is little regard for the subjective state of individuals. We tend to look only for "facts" and "causes' and overlook the body of knowledge that includes the thought, feelings, and motives behind the behaviors. The case study should have validity even in mind of the positivist investigator because the observation becomes a basis for exposing alternative questions and encouraging more creative approaches for empirical study. After reviewing the research of what is "known," there are numerous spaces for questions yet to be explored. Although most of the studies reviewed here have relied on qualitative characteristics provided by clinicians, clients, and researchers to identifying the subjects and describe their behavioral changes, most of the investigators have relied on empirical design with outcome measures of frequency distributions, sociometric status, and the post-treatment rate of displaying the trained behaviors to present their findings. All of the positivist research that exists in the literature has one major limitation. It fails to view the world as the participants view it because it fails to perceive the interactional parenting skills training in a cross-cultural perspective. Little has been offered to further our understanding of the process and how change occurs within the framework of narrative-based systemic therapy. Berger and Dejong (1996) have questioned the importance of the relationship and the process in behavioral changes in clients. Berger began to explore the process within the therapy, but continued to focus on the eventual outcomes by quantifying the responses. Isn't learning a process that is better described than quantified? Acquiring new meanings, ideas, and solutions in therapy is not only discovering new 6869 information and behaviors but also about experiencing dialogical speech action and change. To Korean immigrant families open dialogical practices are important themes as vehicles for collaborative narrative relationship-building within a therapy characterizing by connecting, collaborating, and constructing (Anderson, 1992; 1997). The qualitative case study method supports the concept of process, with observation and insight being the instruments of understanding. There is strong evidence that examining, analyzing, and narrating clinical social work process has played a major role in the development of social work practice theory/knowledge and understanding (Tyson, 1995). In the early part of the twentieth century social work began to use case-study methods modeled on medical methods of inquiry (Bromley, 1986). Both Bromley (1986) and Holbrook (1983) provide some historical background to case study method used in social work. The professionalization of social casework and its close association with the law and with medicine, especially psychiatry, led to the adoption of what was in effect a quasi-judicial method of investigation and decision-making in which 'social facts' are collected and interpreted as a 'social diagnosis'--see Richmond (1917). The 'social facts' are taken to be well-authenticated conclusions derived from the case-records (Bromely, 1986). Research DesignThe research design of the study is the single case design. The single case study is selected as an appropriate design. The first rationale for selecting a single-case design in the study is that the single case represents the critical case in testing a significant and well formulated theory (Yin,1994). Another rationale for conducting the single case study is the revelatory case (Yin, 1994). The investigator has an opportunity to observe and analyze a single group of CPS Korean immigrant families involved physical child abuse problems, facing the cultural-linguistic dissonance in therapy processes. By collaborating with these clients linguistically, the author is able to learn about their cultural construct systems, perceptual processing, and new meaning 6970 generating pertaining to physical child abuse problems. This observation and insights into the problems of the physical child abuse forms a significant case study, because few social scientists had previously the opportunity to investigate these problems, even though the problems are common across the country. The case study is therefore worth conducting because the descriptive information alone will be revelatory. Bromley (1986) has reviewed the case-study method as an account of a person in a situation. The usual purpose of a case-study is to find a solution to the person's problem. The case study is essentially a reconstruction and interpretation of a major episode, that is, singular, naturally occurring events in a person's real life (Bromley, 1986).Case study is an intensive investigation of a single unit that can be at various levels of complexity. A unit of study may be an individual, family, group, a treatment team, a segment of a clinical session, or a community. The case study method is useful to, study problems in depth, to understand the stages in processes, and to understand situation in context (Gilgun, 1994). Gilgun (1994) alleges that case study is idiographic, meaning a single unit (such as social work practice sessions) is studied, and multiple variables (such as narrative structure and interactional action/structure, and actions) are investigated. case study can describe subjective meanings as individual attribute to life events; identify themes in individuals; and/or investigate causal relationships between variables. Gilgun (1994) discusses practice-relevant case studies as being relevant to the assessment phase, the process of intervention and the outcome of intervention. Process-relevant case studies focus on, what happened, how the intervention worked, and what the major actors in the implementation process did. The central guideline is how well the processes are described. Well described case studies take multiple perspectives into account and attempt to understand the influences of multilayered social systems on subjects' (social work clinician and clients) perspectives and behaviors (Gilgen, 1994).7071This study will use an exploratory and descriptive single case holistic design. A holistic design is chosen because there is not more than one unit of analysis (individuals) available for the study. The holistic design is advantageous when there are no more logical sub-units of the research problem or when the relevant theory underlying the case study is in itself of a holistic nature (Yin, 1994) The Compatibility between the Evaluator's & the Practitioner's TheoriesTyson (1995) proposes that "one of the most important decisions an evaluator makes is whether or not to use the same practice model as the practitioner used" (p. 436). Social constructionism is a heuristic that defines a linguistic ontology, such as discourse, as the real to be studied (Gergen, 1986; Mishler, 1986). That ontological assumption is compatible with such practice theories as the hermeneutic (Scott, 1989) and narrative models (Cohler, 1988). Sampling PlanPurposive, conceptually-driven sampling method (Miles & Huberman, 1994) was used. Two families were invited to participate in therapeutic dialogical conversation about physical child abuse problems for this study. The two cases were referred by relevant social service agencies in three counties of Illinois. These counties of Illinois include Cook County, DePage County, and Lake County of Illinois. These three areas are chosen since these are the three largest counties in Illinois where many Korean immigrants reside according to 1990 Census4. Among two cases, one was a major study subject and the other one was used for the purpose of back up to prevent the unexpected result of premature termination before 12 sessions for the study. The investigator obtained the permission from the social service agencies to support the study in order to acquire access to the cases of Korean families who experience physical child abuse and collect initial data regarding the cases. 4 7172Two cases were selected according to the following predetermined criteria: (a) self- identified as Korean families who are immigrant first generation parents in adulthood in Korea with their children in early childhood in Korea and/or born in America; (b) reported as child abuse case; (c) currently living in Cook County, DePage County, and Lake County of Illinois; and (d) interested in this study and referred as in steps a-c above. SettingThe setting for the research was the researcher's agency located in Wilmette City, Chicago, Illinois. The System Used to Evaluate the Treatment"The evaluator's environment-system boundary delineates the source of data the evaluator will use, which can range from therapist-client interactions to information derived from family members" (Tyson, 1995, p.431). Further, therapeutic precepts, such as preserving confidentiality, may preclude going outside the treatment relationship to obtain evaluative data. As a naturalistic evaluator, the investigator used only data derived from therapeutic interactions with the clients to evaluate the treatment because naturalistic research always preserves the integrity of the treatment system under study (Tyson, 1995). In this study the investigator also used the information derived from a school teacher as the core client signed the confidential information release form to permit the investigator to have access to the information about child in school. This check on the child’s safety from abuse would be done regularly as part of a treatment process and was not done for research purpose. A Pilot Case StudyA pilot case study was conducted to find the effect of tape recording on relationship structure and data for the study, as well as to get a sense of the practical considerations involved 7273 in conducting the research processes, in terms of time constraints and logistic exigencies of the clinical setting.The inquiry for the pilot cases was much broader and less focused than the ultimate data collection plan by which the proposed research was to occur. The author used one case for the pilot study, focusing on a different type of data collection method such as the use of audio tape recording and participant observation with memory. The case was located in the same area as the ultimate data collection plan. The main criterion is the fact that the access to the sites will be made easy by some prior personal contact on the part of researcher. The case was sexual assault and child abuse related, which was referred by a DCFS social worker. The interview was taken once a week for three months. The procedure included two steps: interview with tape recorder and without tape recorder in order to examine what the bias is going to be in the data collected. In addition, the presence of collateral was significant component in this pilot study. The data were analyzed by using coding categories. These include intensity of feeling, breadth of context/perspective, amount of self-disclosure, and negativity of feeling. As the result of the analysis of the data in the pilot case study, it is not known about the significant effect of taping recording on the data. Although there was little sign of conscious arousal of the presence of the tape recording for the clients at the very beginning of the therapy, they seemed to show the quick ignorance of the present tape recording and concentrated on what they liked to talk about. The result of the analysis of the pilot case study of the impact of tape-recording on the client’s experience in therapy is presented in Table A. 7374Table able A: Impact of Tape Recording on Client Experience in Therapy Session 1 6 12 ______Procedure TR/Coll. TR/Coll. TR/Coll. (Yes/No) (No/Yes) (No/No) Client Experience______Intensity of feeling Little Moderate High (not crying) (silent) (crying) ______Breadth of perspective Single Subjective/Self-reflective/ Multiple Self-reflective ______Amount of self-disclosure Little Moderate High (simple events) (subjective) (subjective)/(self-other relation) ______Negativity of feeling High Moderate No (loss/angry/shame) (embarrassed)/ (smile)/(comfortable)(frustrated)/ (hopeless)_ ____ Note: TR refers to the tape recording; Coll. refers to the presence of collateral. 7475Data Gathering and ProcedureThis study is a naturalistic study in which no aspect of the client’s course of treatment was modified. No intrusive video tape recording devices were used except for a audio tape recorder for data gathering. The effect of audio tape recording was studied in a pilot case study. Triangulation Triangulation was used in this study to help control for the bias inherent in any single research method. Triangulation is a term used in navigation, referring to taking reading of several points to plot a navigating course (LeVine, 1981). In this study, methodological triangulation was achieved by a data analysis heuristic which was made up of multiple coding schemes and categories (see Appendix B). The coding schemes that were used were: dialogical speech development, perspective taking development, narrative process sequences, therapist inter-subjectivity, and Korean "han" Transformation processes. Triangulation was also used by using the information from different sources (Yin, 1994). The multiple sources of evidence (Yin, 1994) for this study include open-ended interview, documentation, and participant-observation. An open-ended interview was conducted with a Korean immigrant family. Open-ended interviewing was used to assess or determine the respondents' initial subjective constructions of the physical child abuse problems that were brought to the clinical interview. Documentation included the core client’s a follow-up letter and a school teacher’s report. Procedure The major task of the constructionist investigator is to tease out the constructions that various actors in a setting hold, and, so far as possible, to bring them into conjunction -- a joining-7576 with one another and with whatever other information can be brought to bear on the issues involved (Guba & Lincoln, 1989). As data collection procedure, Guba and Lincoln's (1989) hermeneutic dialectic process will be primarily used with very open-ended interviews. As a first step, an initial respondent, R1, who was the primary inquirer in the study, was engaged in description of her preunderstanding about a second respondent, R2, starting by informing the resources of the knowledge and then initially asking questions regarding the context of the meeting and the history of the idea of coming in terms of relationships among those present and their ideas as follows: 1) How did the idea to come to therapy come about?; 2) What has the respondent, R2, talked with child protective service providers up to now?; and 3) What is the respondent's expectation or a hope for therapy? or How would you like to use this meeting? Next, a second respondent, R2, a core client in the study, was engaged in an open-ended interview to determine an initial subjective construction of physical child abuse problem-- the focus of the inquiry. Thus the respondent R1, the inquirer, and respondent R2, the participant, moved back and forth within the hermeneutic circle as the dialogical process. As the interview proceeds, the degree of structure of the interviews will change from very unstructured to more pointed, subjective questions. And as the interview proceeds to joint construction of multiple perspectives, the R1 also will be engaged in interpretation of her preconceptions, expectations, the set of assumptions, and the meanings about the issue, physical child abuse, that she will bring to the clinical interview. The respondent, R1, will describe the focus as she constructs it, to describe it and comment on it in personal terms. In the study, these comments might include observations about claims, concerns, and issues, and observations about what is liked and disliked about physical child abuse, by saying, "Child should not be hit by their parents. Battering is not useful or adaptive any more as a means of child discipline today".The interview questions ranged from fact to opinion. Types of questions included circular questions, reflexive questions (or Socratic questions), and future-oriented questions.7677In addition, documentation (written police/DCFS reports of child abuse events, progress reports, respondents' letters, and journal notes from interviews), archival records (survey data about Korean immigrant perception about discipline and child abuse), and participant observation corroborated the materials from the interviews. In summary, this study used the multiple methods and multiple sources of evidence for the data collection in order to maximize the benefits from the multiple sources of evidence. Development of Coding CategoriesBefore that data was collected some tentative coding categories were developed that captured the research question- How does a CPS involved Korean immigrant client use the therapeutic dialogical conversation to resolve child abuse problem and generate a new meaning about parent-child relation? After the audiotapes were transcribed completely, they were carefully read and reread in order to develop more fine grained coding categories. A coding manual was then developed and each transcription was analyzed using this manual (see Appendix B)Data Analysis MethodData analysis techniques consist of examining, categorizing, tabulation, or otherwise recombining the evidence to address the initial major proposition of a study. This study started with a general qualitative analytic strategy to yield priorities for what to analyze and why (Yin, 1994). One general strategy involves relying on theoretical propositions (or hypotheses). Theoretical propositions help to focus attention on certain data and to ignore other data. The theoretical propositions also help to organize the entire case study and to define alternative explanations to be examined. Theoretical propositions about causal relation, answers "how" and "why" questions. These relationships can be very useful in guiding case study analysis in this manner (Yin, 1994, p.104). 7778The analytic technique of the hypotheses generating process (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Yin, 1994) was used for exploratory case studies. The hypothesis generating process was used to analyze data obtained from the open-ended interviews, archival records and documentation. The goal is not to conclude a study but to develop ideas for further study. Hypotheses are the suggested links between categories and properties. Properties are concepts that describe a category (Merriam, 1988). "Generating hypotheses requires evidence enough only to establish a suggestion; not an excessive piling up of evidence to establish a proof" (Glaser & Strauss, 1967, pp.39-40). The qualitative analytic techniques that were utilized to analyze the open-ended interviews, archival records, and documentation include two processes: coding analysis and thematic analysis.Coding analysis included open coding, axial coding, and selective coding (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). Open coding is the process of breaking down, examining, comparing, conceptualizing, and categorizing data (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). Axial coding places those data from open coding back together in new ways by making connections between a category and its subcategories. The focus is on specifying a category (phenomena) in terms of the conditions that give rise to it (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). Selective coding is the process of selecting the core category, systematically relating it to other categories, validating those relationships, and filling in categories that need further refinement and development (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). The more linguistically oriented approach to qualitative analysis such as the narrative/discourse analysis method mainly will be used in order to implement the analysis of the therapeutic narrative process as in the interactional unit between a therapist and clients in the clinical setting. Each interview was followed immediately by a data analysis most likely using the method of constant comparison (Glaser and Strauss, 1967; Glaser, 1978; Lincoln and Guba, 1985). The purpose of doing an immediate analysis is to make the material from preceding interviews available for commentary in subsequent ones. The level of analysis on transformative 7879 dialogue of therapy was the content of narrating processes as the interactional units between therapist and client. Coding System is presented for the study (Appendix B). Thematic analysis also is used to analyze the data in the transcripts. The emerging themes are related to the coding categories and reflect the informant’s experience with self and family. The result includes four themes and 12 domains. Validity (Trustworthiness)Culturally Relevant Construct ValidityTo increase the validity (trustworthiness) of this qualitative study, culturally relevant construct validity was strengthened. One of the central concerns of this study was the validity of coding categories used by Western researchers for coding clinical process in the Korean language and based on meaning from the Korean culture. The notion of culturally relevant construct validity has been stressed in social work profession. Kim (1997) studied Korean American self- construct. In her study with regard to the concept of ‘self’, she focused more on the construct of self in the bicultural context. In my research I have focused more on the categories that pertain to the transformation or therapeutic change process. This is called ‘emic’ vs. ‘etic’ categories in anthropology, but this does not go far enough for my purpose. To compensate for the possibility of cultural bias in the coding process, another set of coding categories was developed: Korean "han" transformation process (see Appendix B).Ecological ValidityThe term of ecological or external validity was emphasized by Urie Bronfenbrenner and typically refers to "whether the results obtained through the research correspond to experience outside the research situation" (Tyson, p.516). One of the central problems in clinical research has concerned ecological validity, in that research that imposes measurement processes into the clinical change that processes, thus eroding the ecological validity. Because the therapeutic 7980 process was not changed for the purpose of the research, the ecological validity of this study of the therapeutic change process is significantly strengthened. The impact of the introduction of the tape recorder was studied in the pilot study and has been described previously, so that its impact on ecological validity could be assessed. ReliabilityReliability Regarding Qualitative CodingTo develop reliable coding categories, consensual validation of the coding scores was achieved by having an independent coder code more than 30 % of the data correcting for the possible bias of the interpretation of a single coder. Reliability of these coding categories was established by asking the two second person with a Master’s Degree in Social Work and clinical practice experience in family therapy and Doctoral Degree in Social Work and clinical practice experience in family therapy to independently code 30 % of the transcriptions. The independent raters were instructed in interpreting the coding manual and in applying the codes to the material in the transcriptions. The hypotheses were being tested via a qualitative coding of the significant thematic chunks of the central client’s conversations in the sessions 1, 6, and 12 (total number of chunks were 349). To assure the reliability of the coding categories, one procedure that was undertaken after the categories had been fully conceptualized, was a quantitative measurement of the number of agreements divided into the total number of conversations coded by both coders. 97 % of inter- rater reliability was established and considered adequately reliable. The researcher selected segments that were the most central in terms of the research question and the hypotheses, a total of 10 %. Another 20% of the chunks were systematically selected by the researcher, by taking every fifth chunk that had not been coded by both coders. This 20 % was then coded by researcher and another coder (Dr. Noone). Thus a total of 30 % of the chunks were coded by three coders. We developed coding categories and checked and rechecked, refining the categories and 8081 discussing the coding categories. Where disagreements over rating a category occurred, these disagreement were discussed until agreement was reached in until we arrived on how to appropriately code the data. Each transcription was first broken in "chunks" consisting of material that seemed to hold together and represented a theme, an idea, or a pattern that could be captured by the coding categories (Huberman & Miles, 1994). Some categories reflected linguistic interaction and other categories represented linguistic and pre-linguistic interaction (e.g., simile, laugh, silence, cries, pointing, pause, etc.). In order to code the material, hermeneutic interpretation was necessary, Huberman & Miles (1994) refer to this process as developing pattern codes.For example, to understand what the client Korean mother meant by stating "Han" or "Chung" required interpretation of the client Koran mother’s ethnic specific intrapsychic process and understanding of linguistic-relational development her at a given time in treatment. Reliability Regarding English TranslationIn this research, since the therapy sessions occurred in Korean and then were translated intoEnglish, another issue with regard to reliability concerned the reliability of the translation. A research associate, Dr. Koh, a bilingual clinical psychologist with Ph.D degree, reviewed the English translation that was conducted by researcher. A total of 10 % from the total of 30 % of coded chunks that were English translation were reviewed by the research associate independently, along with the Korean version of transcripts. Then the author and the research associate then discussed and negotiated the translation of the tapes with each other. The purpose of this procedure was to reach translation equivalence (Hui & Triandis, 1985) for the data. In order to transform the Korean tapes into readable words, the author transcribed the tapes just after the interview. A.80 level of reliability of translation was assured by Dr. Koh.In the final stage of coding the categories were collapsed into five broad concepts reflecting each dimensions of the client’s development with regard to dialogical speech, perspective-taking, 8182 narrative process sequences, and Korean “han” transformation processes. Another concept included therapist inter-subjectivity. (The complete coding manual is found in the Appendix B). It is these six concepts reflected the central hypotheses that were tested. Procedures to Protect Participants and Obtain ConsentParticipants' right of privacy, self-determination, anonymity, and confidentiality was preserved and maintained. The participant signed an informed consent form to participate in research study and kept a copy of the consent (Appendix A). 8283CHAPTER IVDATA ANALYSISThis chapter provides the qualitative findings about the relationship between the therapeutic conversational dialogue and the process of generating new meaning about parent-child relations and changing physical child abuse problem for a Child Protective Service involved Korean immigrant family. The four major findings included in this chapter are: (1) the client child abuse- related semantic frame change; (2) the client child abuse related description process change; (3) the parent client coercive (child client aversive) behavior change; and (4) linking therapist activity in therapy as dialogical conversation with client change process. In addition, the finding on Korean “Han” transformation is presented as it provides cultural relevance to the study.The mother was a primary client as a core informant in relation to both the four major findings and the additional finding of Korean “Han” transformation processes. The qualitative findings of this study were generated In two distinct analytic procedures: coding and thematic analysis. In the first coding process, major findings include dialogical speech development, narrative process sequences, and the therapist’s inter-subjectivity of therapist interaction modes and therapist dialogical –relational process. In addition Han” transformation process is included, which is the essential part of the culturally relevant construct of the ethos for ethnic specific clients, Korean immigrant families (see Appendix B) in sessions1, 6 and12, (providing a primary sample).The second thematic analysis yielded narrative data from the analysis of a primary client’s 8384 therapeutic narrative processes with foci on family relationship meaning, and parent coercive (child aversive) behavior change.Finally, the presentation addresses the results of hypotheses testing corresponding to the major four research questions in the study. The following presentation addresses the sequential, spiral-like flow of the therapeutic change processes with the focus on sessions 1, 6, and 12. Background InformationA Korean first generation immigrant family, the Kim family is composed of six family members. Mrs. Kim was born in South Korea in 1959. She married Mr. Kim in Seoul Korea in 1983. In 1985, she immigrated to the United States, where she began her married life in Chicago, Illinois. Her husband, Mr. Kim was born in South Korea in 1953. In 1982, he came to the United States, where his parents and siblings had already lived one year before his immigrant life started in Chicago. All of their three children were born in America: Lisa, 13 (seventh grade) in 1986, Christina, 7 (first grade) in 1989; and Allen, six months in 1996. The Kim family was referred for family counseling at the Family Service Center by a school counselor on June 3, 1997. At that time, the school began to be concerned with continued complaints from Christina about beatings at home and proceeded to make a child abuse report to DCFS (the Department of Children and Family Services). It was several weeks later, after the family therapist received a call from the school counselor and had called her, that Mrs. Kim finally decided to go in and see a therapist in the Family Service Center. During this time there were two additional short conversations on the phone for an appointment, as the therapist responded to Mrs. Kim’s request to call her back later. At that point, although she appeared to have been interested in family counseling and tried to come, Mrs. Kim needed some time to settle down her busy schedule in the situation in which she just opened a new grocery store business and had to work late until 8: 30 p.m. Then we agreed upon a late arrangement of our first meeting at 9:00 p.m. on June 30, 1997. 8485The Kim family came to the therapeutic conversation for twelve sessions of therapy and for one follow-up appointment one month later. Mrs. Kim is a core client and was seen nine sessions of total 12 sessions, including eight individual sessions (sessions 1 to 7) and one final family session (session 12) with her husband and two daughters who were seen in the sessions 8, 9 and 11. For a month follow-up session, Mrs. Kim was seen alone, which was initially scheduled as a whole family session. Coding AnalysisThis section presents the results of the coding analysis. This includes dialogical speech development, perspective-taking, narrative process sequences, and therapist inter- subjectivity. The first three involve the two structural components of identity as a story: the thematic lines and narrative complexity. And the last one is the clinical context in which the relational-dialogical process takes place between client and therapist during the therapy sessions. Based on narrative complexity and thematic lines as two major component of identity as a story, this section presents narrative complexity and the next section presents the thematic lines on structural complexity in narrative. As stories differ in thematic organization, they also differ in narrative or structure complexity. The sample narrative descriptions (direct quotes from the data) are presented along with Tables.Dialogical Speech DevelopmentFive dialogical speech development levels are presented along with a continuum of coding systems. The coding categories are developed in integration of Seikkula’s (1993, 1995) model for language development, including social speech, egocentric speech, and inner speech and Anderson’s (1997) clinical theory of dialogical conversation, including monologue and dialogue. The coded categories indicate dimensions of dialogical speech development and entail five interrelated simultaneous, overlapping, chronological, sequential components: 1) monologic 8586 speech; 2) social speech; 3) private speech; 4) internal dialogue; and 5) external dialogue. The following presentation encompasses the table and narrative samples of the sessions 1,6 and 12.The results of analysis of dialogical speech development process are presented in Table 3. The mother, a core client in the Kim family appeared to make a great progress along the dimensions of dialogical speech development levels coded in transcripts of sessions 1, 6, and 12 as seen in Table 1. The scores on the Mother’s Dialogic Speech Development are noted with the percentage (%) of each speech development category. The mother’s monologic speech was showing very strong signs of sharp decrease in amount of speech in narrative during sessions 1, 6, and 12. These decrease was 40.6 percentage points, from 57.8 % to 17.2 %, between sessions 1 and 6. And at session 12, monologic speech became 0 %. With regard to social speech, the mother fell from 34.3 % to 28.3% between sessions 1 and 6. And at session 12, social speech appeared 0%. As regarding private speech, the table showed very strong signs of increase in the amount of private speech in narrative during sessions between 1 and 6. That increase jumped 28 percentage points from 7.9 % to 35.9 %. In contrast, the table showed this falling down at session 12 to 12 %, from 35.9 % in session 6. In respect to internal dialogue, the table showed the greatest increase in the amount of internal dialogue in narrative during therapy sessions 1, 6, and 12. Those increases were o 18.6 percentage points in the sixth session from 0 % in the first session, and 43.4 percentage points from 18.6 % to 62 % between sessions 6 and 12. Finally, with regard to external dialogue, the table also showed very strong signs of increase in the amount of external dialogue in narrative during sessions between 6 and 12, while there was no sign of change in the amount of external dialogue during sessions between 1 and 6. 8687Table 3. Quality of Change in Mother’s Dialogic Speech Development Session 1 6 12 (Type of Interview) (Individual) (Individual) (Family) Dialogic Speech Development Levels Monologic Speech 59 (57.8) 25 (17.2) 0 (00.) Social Speech 35 (34.3) 41 (28.3) 0 (00.) Private Speech 8 (07.9) 52 (35.9) 13 (12.) Internal Dialogue 0 (00.0) 27 (18.6) 63 (62.) External Dialogue 0 (00.0) 0 (00.0) 26 (26.) Total Segments 102 (100.0 %) 145 (100.0 %) 102 (100. %)The First Stage of Monologic Speech Monologic speech is the first level of dialogic speech development. Four interwoven aspects of monologic speech were coded: (1) negative and self-accusing voices about self and other; (2) talk about the already said and seen world for the purpose of solving problems and conflicts; (3) fixed and constricting narratives; and (4) denial of the existence outside of another consciousness with equal right and equal opportunities (see this nature of monologic speech associated with oppression and victim mentality for Mrs. Kim in greater detail at the last section titled with the cultural significance of Korean “han” transformation processes later in this chapter).The monologic speech appeared to be associated with three major recurring aspects of lived life experience, including tragic childhood experience, marital conflict, and child discipline associated with beating over sessions 1, 6, and 12. It occurred mostly during the first session and at the sixth session, where monologic speech tremendously deceased in amount and intensity of emotional insistence. By the session 12, it completely disappeared as the other speech levels appeared on social speech and dialogue. 8788Sample Narratives of the Sessions 1 and 6 During session 1, Mrs. Kim stated, “I am not capable of doing the things that my husband wants me to do” “No one can help me…I don’t know how to control my child…When the children do not follow the direction, Korean people beat them…to make them ‘scared’ of physical punishment. Like this, ‘if you don’t this by the time three, I will beat you’…Then Christina (the second child) didn’t do what was told by and must hit her as I had said that I was going to hit you….” (excerpt from topic segment 62). “Because my life was so much difficult, I wanted to escape from the situation. Because it was so hard for my family to make a living…Situation. So to speak, I wanted to get away from the situation… from my family's poor economic condition…..” (excerpt from topic segment 4). “My mother-in-law...might have thought that I couldn't live a long life with her son and both she... and all the other family members had treated me very harshly. So while living with in-laws, I kept searching for a chance [to run away] so many times at the beginning of the marriage..." (Topic segment 8). “Well, when we see the Bible it tells us that we have to discipline children with a flexible whip instead of stiff rod. In the Bible... I mean ... the Bible tells us to discipline children with a whip...... Bible says that we should whip children to discipline...... This is ....a small ....rule in the family, so to speak.” (excerpt from topic segment 63)."I never had thought of my husband as a husband and until now I always had thought of him a son in me. It is just like a mother who always embraces a son and make him comfortable" (excerpt from topic segment 94). “My second child and my husband are very much alike in character and so she relies on other. And her older sister takes care of her younger sister very well and she and I are very much alike in character” (excerpt from topic segment 61). “My second child is..., she just fool around for heaven’s sake. No matter how scaringly I tell her, she never listen to me. Then..., with my hot temper [smile in embarrassment] I just got to hit her” (excerpt from topic segment 65). The Second Stage of Social Speech 8889The second stage of the dialogic speech development process is social speech. Social speech was the first and the most usual area of language where the client coordinated her behavior on the basis of another person’s instruction, including the therapist. Social speech was coded in transcripts when the utterances were made about actual reality that determined the client’s behavior in two interrelated ways: (1) the meaning of the things and issues at which the client pointed, was produced in interactional process where her actions engendered a reaction not from the object but from another person’s instruction and (2) the client’s meanings of her experiences and her network as well as the meaning of incidents described in the word itself were constructed between the participants in the discourses, including therapist, clients and family members. Sample Narratives of the Sessions 1 and 6At the session 1 when asked about the happening concerning child beating, Mrs. Kim replied as follows: (T) indicates therapist and (C ) client.T: [pause] So I wonder what has happened? What?…C: What was the situation that made me hit or ought to hit?T: Yes, what has happened, happened during that time? Because of the incident with your child I came to know you, Is that right? C: Yes, that’s right.T: What has happened all these days? And also what kind of conversation did you have with the worker at the Child Abuse Agency in America during the time of the investigation?C: Uhhh…[shows tension] (excerpt from topic segment 61). Addressing the issue of educational disadvantage for her child in the new multicultural context, the client stated, “…..They don’t teach much at the school in the United States. I’ve learned that parents had to teach a lot at home. But because I couldn’t do that , Christina couldn’t catch up with others. Moreover we are not a typical American family. So we are not able to offer any information about America although we want to do things for her…..I just kept 8990 pushing the oldest daughter and she kept pushing her little sister and after. It was the little one who stressed out” (excerpt from topic segment 78 and 79). On another occasion, she stated, “And…is there anything else you want to know? And from the school…I haven’t heard anything else from the school. Mrs. Park (Korean ESL teacher) called me several times out of worry…..I told her my situation just like I did with you…..” (Excerpt from topic segment 74). Asked about her expectation of coming to family counseling, Mrs. Kim replied, “I …I think…in fact, my family has problem. In my thought, there is problem…But I know the problem and I have lived life by controlling the problem in my own way. Therefore I know the influence of my husband’s personality or the quick-tempered on all the family very well. I controlled that very much and my husband also controlled that” (excerpt from topic segment 91). At the session 6, the client stated, “ When I had to spank in case of Susan, my first daughter, I let her lie flat in the bed with her underwear down and …then I spanked her with rod.Three times or four…I punished he like that as she agreed. But she was afraid of being spanked. But I spanked her because that was what we agreed on. Instead I spanked her sharply. It might be the reason that she got spanked only three or four times as I remember. And she hasn’t behaved badly, so I did not have to punish her very often “ (excerpt from segment 15 and 16). On another occasion when embracing the core issue, childhood experience with her parents, she stated as follows. T: It seems like a very important point. So you have been closer to your mother than any other siblings have…C: Yes, and now…T: You have been so far.C: Yes.T: Since that you are in very close relationship with your mother. Have your mother told 9091 you about her hardship owing to your father?C: Very much.T: Yeah…C: Because knew him very well (excerpt from topic segment 26).The Third Stage of Private SpeechPrivate speech was coded when the utterances are presented in the transcripts as follows: (1) the discourses that were constructed between participants were obtain the internally constructive meaning for client’s psychic; (2) by speaking aloud the client coordinated for herself her own actions and transferred the coordination of her earlier behavior in the instructions of the outer world into her own psychological structure; and (3) the client was able to take the task out of the actual context and sought a solution in her thinking (Seikkula, 1993). Sample Narratives of the Sessions 1, 6, and 12 During session 1, Mrs. Kim stated “I had believed God so much. Anyway, I began to have my mind that I had to believe in God, I had to believe in God. And then I had thought constantly that my husband was a miserable man [again tears on her cheeks]. My husband is ... And I began to think about if I had turned back from and left him, then would this...man have lived another marriage life? What would have happened to this man? For I had kept thinking this kind of thought in my mind, I could hardly have left him [both laughs and tears]” (excerpt from topic segment 18). “Susan (the first daughter) told all to the investigator [from child protective services] because she knew why mother had to do that…And when the investigator saw the family environment she decided that it was not likely that we abused a child, I think……She called me and said “I went to your house. After I saw that…uh…, don’t worry about the report.’ …So I told her that I am not a bad person [smiling] to the extent of abusing a child…[smiling]. Well… uhm…I told her, ‘I am not a person with a heart like that. I was one hard working person.’….” (excerpt from topic segment 73). 9192At the session 6 when asked about where the strong self-image of being a responsible and hard-working person came from, she responded with a smile and pause, “I guess the motivation came from my childhood in the course of growing up. I saw the hardship of my mother while she lived with my father. It had a great impact on me to see mother suffering while she was young. Well, how to say… shock? Although I can’t call it a shock, it had a great influence on me…… my father lived as he pleased himself. Because he did not take a good care of his family, finally the children became the victim of …victim of the consequences, I guess. Of course, so was mother but it was different,. She was a mother, after all. When parents do not really accomplish the duty as parents… the children suffer. I feel it from my childhood” (excerpt form segment 2 and 3). Evaluating great value of her own in reducing the threat of major family conflicts such as marital conflict and conflict with her mother-in-law to child-rearing experience, the client stated, “Because when I received the call from mother-in-law, I got hurt more and so I don’t want to receive the call. If I would not hear from mother-in-law, I would rather try to make a happier family… [suddenly change in voice loudly]. After I was heard the voice I began to hate my husband too. I come to hate him too. I just got mad. I just think of why I have to live this life. I keep thinking that I could live alone without you …Why she continued doing this to me who love to live with a will like this…..In the case of my mother who said to mother-in-law ‘ my daughter really work so hard, the mother-in-law would rather have said just like ‘Ah! That’s right. My daughter-in-law really work so hard’…..Although she understands my hardship I still don’t understand why…”(excerpt from the segments 97 & 98) By session 12, when asked about how she would explain her daughter’s problem with a new perspective, she responded cautiously: “She used to do nothing she supposed to do. So I would tell the older to help out the younger sibling and I did too. The younger tried to do her own share but it was under my expectation. You (therapist) advised me to leave her alone to do something in the last meeting… It occurred to me that she could do things by herself if she was left responsible for herself. But after I left alone for a few days, I could not stand it any more. So I called her out 9293 and put her belonging in a drawer that she used to share with her older sister…..” (excerpt from topic segment 30). The Fourth Stage of Internal Dialogue Internal dialogue was coded when the client engaged in these ways: (1) after hearing a fragment of a story, a client posed a question in a novel way or offered a curious comment, which acted to kindle internal thoughts and musings (Anderson, 1997); (2) client was capable of taking dialogical experience with herself and searched for the unsaid-hidden voices; (3) client coordinated her behavior, by putting her own thoughts into words (Anderson, 1997; Seikkula, 1993); and (4) the issues discussed in the social interaction were able to be detached from the contexts in the way that generalizing discourse became possible and so the issues got equivalent in the dialogue of the inner language. In this way the client appeared dialogically ambiguous, many positive self-voices for many contexts with alternative or new words, values, and accents and the client appeared to be attentive and uninterrupted in the conversation (Seikkula, 1993). Sample Narratives of the Sessions 6 and 12At session 6, addressing her self-identity with strong independent character and hard working style by looking back at her unparented childhood, Mrs. Kim stated: “ I don’t blame anyone and I wonder I was made [mannish] by nature. I believe that I have to do what I can do. And …I was able to do anything when I did my best. So uhmm…I feel accomplished rather than difficulty in the process. I enjoyed it. It is applicable to anything, to my children and husband. The fact that they got changed very much when I do my best and show love to them. That gave me a great feeling of accomplishment” (excerpt from topic segment 8). The following dialogue was indicative of internal dialogue. C: Ah, any way my mom… I remember her as a one who tried hard to live best rather than just one who spanked me…I recall her that way…..9394T: Uhmmm. So you must have felt sorry for your mom’s living tough life.C: Of course I did. I am telling to myself…uh…I felt really happy to see my parent getting together side by side at my brother’s wedding.T: Uhmm.C: Of course my father gave mom very hard time but seeing both parents live long after All…T: Uhmm.C: I felt really happy, and …T: Uhm.C: And the other thing I often think to myself…and to my mom is …She sometimes lament…then I comfort her by saying…T: Uhmm.C: Saying, ‘Your life was really worthwhile.’T: Uhmm.C: Because if she had remarried to someone else yielding to that adversity… Then she would have been sorry for it for the rest of her life…and thanks to her good job in bringing up her children and they are doing well now. And even when she was in hardship while living with my father when she was young, she really tried hard to live.T: Uhmmm. Yeah.C: She really tried to do her best at all.T: You mean like the way you, Mrs. Kim try to do your best?C: That’s right [strongly affirm]T: Uhmm (excerpts from topic segments, 19 and 20).9495By session 12, the client was invited to write a letter to her mother at home, she read in a very pleasant face in front of all participants, husband, two daughters, and therapist, with a great attention as follows: “ ‘To my loving mother’ [change in voice to a very retrospective and lower tone] Mother! It seems like to a very old story but I think that it was so painful and difficult childhood for me. The most memorable thing…was when I went out to meet with you who came back home from work at night. You and I both were rolling down continuously on the steep bank path while I carried you on the back of the bicycle. And yet, mother!…I imagine how I would be like if I were born in a very rich family. It is told that adversity at early days is worth buying. But now I am so thankful to the hardship although it was given against my will-wish for me. Because of the sheer strength, at present time, I am doing my best while thinking about the tough days, the very … hardest days…always thinking about the suffering days. Because in those days it was very unusual for women to go out to work and make money, I remembered our living was so tough. But I am so much thankful to you, mother and I also appreciate your love deep in my heart in the way that all these days you brought up your all three children well and gave them away in a good marriage” (excerpt from topic segment 4). The following dialogue was indicative of external dialogue by embracing the core issue of child discipline and rearing practice. C: Right. We are dependent on an outside help. Training at home is very difficult and I am very worried about it.(finishing topic segment 71 and beginning topic segment 72)T: You are playing a role as a mother, aren’t you?C: Yes, I am.T: what kind of mother would you expect your children to see in you?C: Well, I don’t know how…how to explain but anyway it would be different if I could be a stay- at-home mother. But because as a working mother I always stay out of home, it is not easy for me to show the real aspect of a mother to the children. 9596T: Uhmm.(finishing topic segment 72/beginning topic segment 73). What is you think the real aspect of mother? What would be the true picture of you as a mother you want to show?C: Well, as I told you before, If I let the children keep their rooms untidy and go to school without washing their faces something like that, they will get used to it and they will think these behaviors are O.K. I think that would be a problem.T: So that’s the real aspect of a mother you have in mind, a mother who can discipline when necessary, isn’t it?C: Yes, it is.T: Discipline is necessary, right? [toward two children]C: That’s right.T: Yes, discipline is necessary. Let’s listen what your mom would like to be as a mom. Your mom thinks that discipline is necessary whenever it needs. So you want your children to be organized… C: I would like to give an opportunity for my children to learn to be organized.T: That’s the way you want to raise your children, isn’t it?C: Yes, I wish I could at least I have been trying to do so. T: So as a way of caring, you regard a mother as a trainer who discipline the children instead leaving them as they are… C: Sure [with confidence]T: And you want them to see you as a disciplinary mother.C: Yes.T: Not just letting them do whatever they want to do.C: That’s right.T: Discipline with concern. Is it what you want to be with your children?C: Yes (excerpt from topic segment 73). 9697In addition, it was observed that taking advantage of the family discussion with the core issues of child discipline and rearing, she was very calm, silent, and attentive to what her husband and her daughters spoke of. She responded with respect and patience in a warm and affectionate attitude toward them, until they completed what they wanted to speak about. The Fifth Stage of External Dialogue The external dialogue was coded when the client’s thinking and communication allowed for creativity and consciousness through the complementary autonomy of participant’s perspective in dialogue (Anderson, 1997) in these intertwined ways: (1) client’s understanding came to fruition in the response in the therapeutic conversation (Seikkula, 1993); (2) conversation occurred to all people present spontaneously joining in the story telling, adding to and expanding on it rather than correcting the other’s version (Anderson, 1997); (3) client spoke in a way that oriented and did fit her words to the actual listener in the therapeutic conversation (Seikkula, 1993); and (4) client participated in a creation of expansion of possible choices (Anderson, 1997). Sample Narratives from Session 12 For instance, at the point of time during session 12, Mrs. Kim was able to realize the possibilities in the circumstances of her daily life. Exchanging ideas about child rearing strategies in the multicultural living context, Mrs. Kim replied thoughtfully: “Well…I think that if we would like to raise our children within the family until they come to college, then it would seem to demand a strong family education. But what if the family education is not strong enough…it is not a single good way to raise children only in the home…Although we don’t need to rely all the things on the outside help, we can get help with private tutoring that provides better professional knowledge than us as parents…..” (excerpt from topic segment 71). Another example was her participation in the creation of dialogical space in response to the first daughter who was silent about the question asked by therapist: “Susan, do you have any idea, creative idea of how the family can love each other?” “To your thought, what is the most important thing that 9798 you need to do? What is the way that our family can get along with each other in harmony and love?” On another occasion at session 12 when the family conversation took seriously the core issue of husband’s continued coercive behavior, particularly toward their teen girl (first daughter), Mrs. Kim stated in a very calm and firm manner, “The one thing that I would like to talk about is that … there is a big difference in helping between when he considers the daughter’s situation, considering whether now she can help him or not and when he just calling out her to ask help him out at all times whenever he wants without considering what she is doing.….What the problem is… what I as a mother want is …if the car needs to be clean …if it is not the case that before he himself gets started, he needs to get ready for that by himself…don’t get started. That’s what I want. Because if the daughter would be wise and then she think that she needs to help him when her father is doing something with car, then he would appreciate her help, saying ‘Susan! Are you coming out to help me?’ If you come out to help me…help me with such and such things… I think that it would be much different. I think he drives the kid… he just presses the kid to do something in the self-centered thought. It’s not the way that each of us can express the love in the family” (excerpts from topic segments 62 and 63). Another instance was the following dialogue. T indicates therapist, M the client mother, and F father. T: I think that Christina’s family now seems to be in this situation. Father is getting stronger and becoming independent in some way. So is Christina. The mother or older sister used to do everything for Christina, but now she has to do it by herself because mother got busy and can’t take care of Christina like before. Your family is on a turning point. It depends on how we would deal with this given situation differently…So my question is if each of you could be responsible for yourselves, then how could all of you make it be achieved? [speaking in English]. How could we make it happen?…[speaking in Koran toward father].F: I haven’t thought that far [smiling]9899T: Yeah. So I think today’s conversation seems very important…M: Well…T: What is your idea, Mrs. Kim?M: I don’t think that he understand what you said.T: He didn’t? Uhmm…M: Let’s say that all our family members do what they are supposed to do. If I need yourHelp, would you …[awkwardly smiling but seriously] T: Of course, you need his help. You’ve never spoken about that, have you?M: No, I didn’t. But when I really need you…F: [eyes opened big and very attentive]T: Uhm.M: Uh…I had so many times that I needed his help.T: And also now?M: Now I also need his help…but sometimes he just goes back when he doesn’t like to Work at the store. It doesn’t matter whether I need him or not. Whenever he does so, I can not feel the love in the family relationship at all… As a matter of fact, I really want to know how he thinks about it….. (excerpts from topic segments 79 and 80). SummaryIn summary, the development of higher speech levels has a creative and recursive nature. It appeared on the inter-psychological plane before it appeared on the intra-psychological plane. That is to say, “the true direction of the development of higher dialogical self is not from the individual to the socialized, but from the social to the individual.” (Vygotsky, thought and language, p. 20) It appeared to move coming to higher consciousness from monologue through social speech to dialogue. 99100The dialogic speech development provides us with understanding of how the dialogic nature of the client’s narrative actually works to change the family relationship. Mrs. Kim’s case in this study provided a good example of how the back and forth process of multiple voicing generated a change in perception of self and other. From my point of view, Mrs. Kim entered therapy with monologue-fixed and single-voiced narratives about her relationship her husband, children, and parents-in-law, as well as about her mother’s relationship with her father: “I had to do it all alone; no one helped me.” “My husband is so dependent on me; like my husband, my second child relies on her older sister who helps her very well like me.” “The first daughter helped the second child who is so lazy that she got beaten.” “She deserved to get beaten.” At the social speech level, following conversation with the therapist-social speech- Mrs. Kim constructed a dialogue between herself as unloved child/daughter-in-law/wife and her imagined voice of the lover such as the God and the Mother. At the private speech level with emphasis on thinking, several new descriptions emerged: the voice of the friends who is also the client, Mrs. Kim---leaving home to make a better living alone; an observation about her parents sitting down together in the brother’s wedding; and a very shaky new idea of herself as a victim of parental failure and as a possible resource to her husband and her children, and parents-in-law, particularly father-in-law. The reflecting therapist commented on the story, adding another voice, offering an idea for another story-‘rescue your self?’ At the internal dialogue with emphasis on words, once this internal dialogue with its new voices were ready for conversation with others, those others were evoked, empathically imagined, so that those of the client as a writer or speaker were be “heard,” taken in, understood, and responded to. To that end, both the mother and the second daughter wrote letters: the mother to her mother and the daughter to her unborn baby. Particularly, writing, added to conversation in the session 12, seemed to have promoted an internal dialogue in Mrs. Kim by adding more voices and new narrative potential. As Mrs. Kim wrote and read aloud a significant memory about her 100101 and her mother, there were already four voices present: Mrs. Kim the writer, Mrs. Kim the reader,Mrs. Kim in the memoir, and the voice of her mother in the memoir. In addition, as the daughter wrote and spoke aloud about her unborn baby, three events occurred: the mother and father change their understanding of their daughter, their understanding of each other, and the mother and daughter discovered the increased possibilities in mother-daughter relationship. The parent client, Mrs. Kim presented a dilemma around how much help to offer her daughter: the mother either totally withdrew her support or she offered so much that she paralyzed her daughter. The sessions revealed that her father was always absent from home and liked alcohol, which had positioned herself to rescue everybody: her mother and her siblings, her husband and her children. The wish to rescue/mother everybody was this woman’s way of saying, “I wished to be rescued, mothered.” This behavior confused the daughter: Should she be independent or continue to be rescued? The two letters were read aloud in the same session 12. The mother read first and was calm, experiencing herself for the time as the one who longed to be rescued. The experience of her vulnerability deeply moved her husband and her daughters, who also were calm. When the daughter spoke her letter to her unborn baby, the parents were moved by her commitment to stand by her child. These ideas, now existing alongside one another, created an emotional charge that changed the whole family’s stereotypical ideas of mother/daughter relationships. These relationships could now include longing, vulnerability, and tenderness, as well as rage and disappointment. Reading the letters aloud held these voices and ideas in tension, which increased possibilities for new narratives in the family: “Giving gratitude/thanks” “Love each other in the family.” “Be in harmony in love together,” “I need your help/rescue me.” “Share the responsibility together.” Finally, at the external dialogue stage, these new internal voices changed the dialogue with others and the relationships with them in more positive ways. It was found that newly discovered voices were strengthened when they were expanded in writing the letters and shared with others. 101102The letters acted as representatives of their inner dialogues, and when they were heard, witnessed by relevant others, the emotional life of all participants changed (Penn and Frankfurt, 1994). Mrs.Kim was able to take advantage of the family conversation to expand new family stories. Perspective-Taking DevelopmentThis section presents the results of analysis of the perspective-taking development for the client during sessions 1,6, and 12. Four perspective-taking development levels were developed in modification of Selman and Byrne (1974), which fits more into the research purpose. This includes (1) single, polarized perspective-taking, (2) subjective perspective- taking, (3) self- reflective perspective-taking, and (4) multiple, mutual perspective-taking. Perspective taking is the capacity to imagine what other people may be thinking and feeling. Perspective taking is related to a wide variety of social skills. Good perspective takers are more likely to display empathy and compassion (Eisenberg et al., 1987). In addition, they are better at social problem solving, or thinking of effective ways to handle difficult social situations (Marsh, Serafica, & Barenboim, 1981). Along with Table sample narratives are presented from sessions 1, 6, and 12. The core client, the mother made a change in perspective taking skills over session of 1, 6, and12. Table 4 shows four stages of perspective taking. The scores on the mother’s perspective- taking development are noted with the percentage (%) of each perspective taking stage. A core client, Mrs. Kim’s perspective taking develops in the four phases. As shown by Table 4, the first level, single, polarized perspective taking showed a rapid decrease over sessions of 1, 6, and 12. It accounted for 38.2 % of the perspective-taking level at the first session. And during session 6, it decreased rapidly to 17.2 % and 0 % by session 12. Likewise, the second level, subjective perspective taking accounted for 52.0 % at the first session, 21.4 % during the sixth session, and 0% by the last session 12. Self-reflective perspective taking showed the greatest increase from 9.8 % at the first session through 42.8 % during the sixth session to 68 % at session 12. Multiple, 102103 mutual perspective-taking showed very strong signs of continued increase from 0 % at the first session through 18.6 % during the sixth session to 32. % at the last session 12. Table 4. Quality of Change in Mother’s Perspective-Taking DevelopmentSession 1 6 12 (Type of Interview) (Individual) (Individual) (Individual) Perspective-Taking Levels Single, Polarized 39 ( 38.2) 25 ( 17.2) 0 ( 00.0) Subjective 53 ( 52.0) 31 ( 21.4) 0 ( 00.0) Self-Reflective 10 ( 09.8) 62 ( 42.8) 69 ( 68.0) Multiple, Mutual 0 ( 00.0) 27 ( 18.6) 33 ( 32.0) Total Segments (%) 102 (100.0 %) 145 (100.0 %) 102 (100.0 %)The First Level of Single, Polarized Perspective-Taking The first level of single, polarized perspective taking was coded in transcripts when the client, Mrs. Kim, involved the recognition of fixed and constricting narratives to provide an articulation of the stance toward the world and dichotomized the situation and people involved. Sample Narratives of Sessions 1 and 6At the first session when addressing why she spanked her children, the client stated, “When we read the Bible, it says that we have to discipline children with a flexible whip instead of stiff rod…. In the Bible….I mean …the Bible tells us to discipline with a whip. And that is …not with stiff one, but with flexible whip. The Bible says that we should whip children to discipline…..So that is …a small…uh…rule in my family, so to speak” (excerpt from the topic segment 63). “I am not competent” “I have always been oppressed like a pool.” “ My first daughter took very good care of her sister and made her lazy. That’s why I spanked her….because of that once or so…..In the training process I hit her …..I hit her in the morning because she had to get ready for school and we were out of time. But I couldn’t keep doing things for her because I think keeping doing things for her didn’t feel right….So I spanked her…..So she went to school 103104 crying….She didn’t brush her teeth and she should have done her job, such as packing her bag…..After school she should put her bag in her room…..She just leave her bag out there taking….She didn’t listen to me when I told her to put it away. Then I got to spank her. That’s why …there is no reason at all on spanking her” (excerpt from topic segments 66 and 67). At session 6, the client stated, “My husband told me that he already adjusted his lens prescription and had new glasses. But it is not yet time for the change. So I decided not to allow him to see the money at home. It took already one month…I told him that you just stayed home lying down so comfortably and watching T.V. and taking a nap if you would like…You only give ride for the children. If you spend out all the money that I make hard, later in my life what about me? When I become old what shall I do?……You don’t have job to show up yourself and you only take care of the children at home. You don’t need to do that way” (excerpt from topic segment 104). The Second Stage of Subjective Perspective-Taking This subjective perspective taking was coded in transcripts when the client involved the existence of an alternative subjective point of view, but without a synthesis into a personal viewpoint. Sample Narratives of the Sessions 1 and 6At the first session when taking a core issue of the concern about the battered child’s learning difficulty at school, Mr. Kim stated: “Christina may feel proud of herself too when she had made a great progress in reading English” “ When I had to spank for the case of Susan (the first daughter), I let her lie flat in the bed with her underwear down and …Then I spanked her with a rod. Three times or four…As she agreed, I punished her. But she was afraid of being spanked. But I spanked her because that was what we agreed on. And I spanked her sharply. I think that it might be the reason she got spanked only three or four times as I remember. And she 104105 hasn’t behaved so badly that I did not have to punish her very often” (excerpt from segments 15 and 16). The Third Level of Self-Reflective Perspective-Taking The self-reflective perspective taking was coded in transcripts when the client involved a more sophisticated capacity to take a second person social perspective on her actions and intentions. Sample Narratives of Sessions 1, 6, and 12During session 1, Mrs. Kim stated: “ ….Over there the teacher also was so nice to me that I am thankful so much” (excerpt from topic segment 1). Another example is shown in the previous sample narrative from topic segment 18 of private speech development in dialogic speech development. At the very beginning of the sixth session when it came time to explore how she has become such an independent and hard working person, Mrs. Kim said very calmly and firmly: “ I don’t blame anyone and I was made that way by nature. I believe that I have to do what I can do. And I was able to do anything when I did my best. I feel accomplished rather than difficulty in the process. I enjoy it. It is applicable to anything, to my children and husband. The fact that they get changed very much when I do my best and show love to them…That gives me great feeling of accomplishment” (excerpt from topic segment 8). By session 12, asked about how she can make her children to see her as a well-disciplining mother if she wants so, she replied: “ I haven’t thought about what I can do specifically, but in a way of mine…helping them to get ready for school in the morning is my way of discipline…..I have tried but I can take care of them every morning, then I go to work late around nine o’clock. I tell my husband to go earlier to open the store and then I go to work later on. That’s the way we do” (excerpts from topic segments 74 and 75). In addition, her silent listening to what other family members said, such as her husband and two daughters was indicative of the self-reflective perspective-taking level. 105106The Fourth Level of Multiple, Mutual Perspective TakingThe last level of mutual perspective taking was coded in transcripts when the client was capable of adopting a third person perspective, including the therapist and other family members present.Sample Narratives from Sessions 6 and 12At session 6, Mrs. Kim stated: “ My younger brother married for love…..If a couple had support from their wealthy parents and had a wedding in a proper, they would consider each other’s family background and it would be hard. But when you marry for love instead of arranged marriage, that kind of the background checking would be diminished…. Thinking back, I am grateful for his getting married for love.” (excerpt from topic segment 22).By session 12, she stated: “The most important thing for our family well-being is that me and my husband need to work together as a partner.” On another occasion, she stated, “My mother will be surprised at hearing what Christina (the battered child) told right now here.” Further instances were the same indications as of those of external dialogue levels at the dialogic speech development. See the examples of previously written external dialogue. SummaryIn summary, in this section, a four-stage model of perspective taking was presented through changes in a core client’s perspective taking skill. At the first stage of single, polarized perspective-taking, the client has only a limited and fixed idea of what other family members’ perspectives those of parents, husband, in-laws, and children. At the second stage of subjective perspective-taking, the client acknowledged the alternative subjective point of view but not yet integrated her personal viewpoint. At the third level of self-reflective perspective taking, the client becomes more aware that people can interpret the same event in different ways, the client can “step in another person’s shoes” and reflect on how that person might regard their own 106107 thoughts, feelings, and behavior. At the final stage, she can examine the relationship between two people’s perspectives simultaneously, both from the vantage point of a disinterested spectator and by making reference to larger societal values in the context of multiple possibilities opened. Consequently, the client was significantly less involved in single, polarized perspective taking and was most involved in multiple, mutual perspective taking as the therapy sessions went on. Narrative Process SequencesThis section presents the results of analysis of narrative process sequences for the client during sessions of 1, 6, and 12. This includes three categories of narrative process sequences: (1) narrative process modes; (2) involvement modes; and (3) temporal orientation. Angus and Hardke’s (1994) Narrative Processes Coding System (NPCS) was used for coding of narrative process modes and the Stuttgart Interactional Category System/2 for coding of involvement modes and temporal orientation. Along with tables, sample narratives are presented from sessions1,6, and 12. Mother’s Narrative Process ModesThe narrative process modes involve three categories including focus on the external/event, focus on the internal, and focus on the reflective. The following presentation includes table, descriptive elaboration, and the linkage of the coded session to the rest of the process. Table 5-1 and sample narratives are presented. The result of analysis of narrative process modes is presented in Table 5-1. The mother, a core client in the Kim family appeared to make a great change in narrative process modes coded in transcripts of the sessions 1, 6, and 12 as seen in Table 5.1. The scores on the Mother’s quality of narrative process sequences are noted with the percentage (%) of each category of narrative process modes such as external, internal, and reflective. 107108A core client, Mother’s narrative process modes with focus on external event was showing very strong signs of sharp decreases in number of narratives during sessions 1, 6, and 12. Those decreases were 12.6 percentage points from 45 % to 32.4 % between sessions 1 and 6, and 11.8 percentage points from 32.4 % to 20.6 % between sessions 6 and 12. As for focus on internal process, the table clearly showed the lowest percentage points of narrative process modes with 5 % at the first session, 8.3 % at the session 6, and 3 % by session 12, compared to other narrative process modes such as external and reflective. With regard to focus on reflective, the table showed continued increase in number of narratives during sessions 1, 6, and 12. That increase jumped 9.3 percentage points from 50 % to 59.3 % between sessions 1 and 6, and 17.1 percentage points from 59.3 % to 76.4 % between sessions 6 and 12. Table 5.1: Quality of Change in Mother’s Narrative Process ModesSession 1 6 12 (Type of Interview) (Individual) (Individual) (Family) Narrative Process Modes External 46 (45.0) 47 (32.4) 21 (20.6) Internal 5 (05.0) 12 (08.3) 3 (03.0) Reflective 51 (50.0) 86 (59.3) 78 (76.4) Total Segment 102 (100%) 145(100%) 102(100%) Total Time of Interview 55 (Min) 90 (Min) 130 (Min)Focus on the External/Event When the core client provided descriptive or re-descriptive elaboration of an event or issue (actual or imagined; past, present or future), the narrative sequences were coded as External/Event. Two distinctions were made within this process mode. Event sequences contained a general overview of an event or issue or highlighted a specific incident or event (past, present or future). 108109Sample Narratives of Sessions 1, 6, and 12For session 1, see the following written sample narratives from topic segments 2 and 3 in sample narratives in focus on reflective. At the session 6, Mrs. Kim stated: “Now...another big burden to me is ...my mother-in-law. I am still not comfortable with her. ...The day before yesterday my mom told me...Well...I always lie down with my mom for an hour before I go to bed because my little son sleeps with her [trembling voice]. While baby needs to go bed with his grand mom, he wants to have both his mom and his grand mom and is going back and forth from mom’s room to grand mom’s. He is at a loss. So then I go to grandma’s room and always lie in bed with him together until my baby falls in sleep. And also my mother would feel better too…..My mom told me about this and that, and she told me that she got a phone call from my... mother-in-law that day. Then I asked about what she said. Then because my mom felt pity for me, she would like to talk about me, about the thing I worked so hard….” (excerpt from topic segments 67 and 68).By session 12, the client stated: “ …..I asked Christina (the second daughter) what she would want her child to do if she got married and had a child and she wrote like that all the way by herself……She asked her sister and me about how to spell the words such as ‘listening’ and her sister helped her and I read that after she wrote it…..” (excerpt from topic segment 23). Focus on InternalWhen the client provided descriptive or re-descriptive elaboration of subjective experiences, feeling states and/or affective reactions in the therapy session discourse, it was coded as internal. It was most often descriptions or re-descriptions of how she and significant others felt in her life circumstances. Marker included a predominance of affect-laden phases, the use of the word, “feel” or other synonyms, and/or the presence of prolonged pause and sighs. 109110Sample Narratives of Sessions 1, 6, and 12For examples, see the following written examples of focus on the reflective. Focus on the reflectiveWhen the client focused on interpretive analysis of event descriptions or re-description and/or description or re-description of subjective experiences, it was coded as reflective. In these sequences the client and therapist actively focused on achieving a meaningful understanding of feelings and actions which related to the self and/or significant others. It entailed an active examination or questioning of previous actions or thought patterns, desires, wishes or needs. Sample Narratives of the Sessions 1, 6, and 12At session 1, the client had a conversation with the therapist as follows. T: Again I would like to thank you for your joining me with this dissertation research.C: Yeah. The teacher also was so kind to me in the school and I am so thankful to her.T: There she was too?C: Yeah.T: Yeah…(ending topic segment 1 of focus on internal-positive-recent present) C: In fact, I …came here today because of family problem…T: Uhmm.C: Uhmm…there is no special problem. As I see, uhmm…my husband is …I married …First of all, I am going to tell you about the marriage.T: Yeah, yeah. (ending topic segment 2 of focus on external-neutral-present) C: I married in Korea…when I was young …the situation was …before marriage…My family Was …so poor. Then I grew old enough to get married…and also in that situation, my younger brother died in a car accident. ..In the very poor, difficult situation…T: Uhmmm.110111C: [He] died in a car accident. [He] died…and I was in a very difficult situation and quit my job. …..T: Yeah. Aha! (ending topic segment 3 of focus on external-negative-distant past ) C: Because my life was very much difficult, I wanted to escape from the situation. Because it was so hard to make a living…T: Uhmm.C: Then… T: Situation?C: Situation. So to speak, I wanted to get away from the situation…from my family’s poor economic condition…..T: Aha! Want to break from?C: To break from…you know?T: Yeah, Yeah, Aha! ( ending topic segment 4 of focus on reflective-negative-distant past ). Mother’s Involvement ModesFive involvement modes include (1) positive affect/evaluation, (2) both positive and negative affect/evaluation, (3) negative affect/evaluation, (4) neutral description, and (5) minimal display of involvement. A table and sample narratives are presented.The result of the analysis of the core client’s involvement modes is presented in Table 5-2. The score on the mother’s involvement modes during sessions 1, 6, and 12 are noted with the percentage (%) of each involvement mode. The table 5.2 shows a very sharp increase in positive involvement mode during the sessions 1, 6, and 12. This increase is 12.4 percentage points from 11.7 % to 24.1 % between sessions 1 and 6, and 10.2 percentage points from 24.1 % to 34.3 % between sessions 6 and 12. Positive and negative involvement mode shows up 11.1 percentage points from 2.0. % to 3.1 % between sessions 1 and 6 and down 8.2 percentage points from 13.1 111112% to 4.9 % between sessions 6 and 12. Negative involvement mode decreases 9.3 percentage points from 56.9 % to 47.6 % between sessions 1 and 6. And yet this decrease is 38.8 percentage points from 47.6 % to 8.8 % between sessions 6 and 12. Neutral involvement mode also shows a sharp decrease from 25.5 % through 11.7 % to 0.9 % throughout the sessions 1, 6, and 12. Minimal involvement decreases from 3.9 % to 3.5 % between sessions 1 and 6. But between sessions 6 and 12, there is a very sharp increase of 41.6 percentage points, from 3.5 % to 45.1 %. Table 5.2. Quality of Change in Mother’s Involvement Modes Session 1 6 12 (Individual) (Individual) (Family) Involvement Mode Positive 12 (11.7) 35 (24.1) 35 (34.3) Positive & Negative 2 (02.0) 19 (13.1) 5 (04.9) Negative 58 (56.9) 69 (47.6) 9 (08.8) Neutral 26 (25.5) 17 (11.7) 7 (00.9) Minimal 4 (03.9) 5 (03.5) 46 (45.1) Total Segment 102 (100.0 %) 145 (100.0 %) 102 (100.0 %) Total Time of Interview 55 (Min.) 90 (Min.) 130 (Min.)Positive Affect/EvaluationPositive affect/evaluation was coded in the therapeutic narrative process segments when the client’s feeling/evaluation is expressed and given and it is positive.112113Sample Narratives of Sessions 1, 6, and 12The examples of this have been presented previous. (See previously written examples of topic segment 1 in narrative process modes).Negative affect/evaluation Negative affect/evaluation is coded when a feeling/evaluation is expressed and given and it is negative. Sample Narratives of Sessions 1, 6, and 12For example, see previously written examples of topic segments 3 and 4 in narrative process modes.Positive and Negative Affect/Evaluation Positive and negative affect/evaluation was coded when a feeling/evaluation is expressed and given and it was both positive and negative. Sample Narratives of Sessions 1, 6, and 12During session1, Mrs. Kim stated: “…..Christina (the second daughter) is just in the prime of fooling around…..But I think that as the age of seven go by, she will be all right” (excerpt from topic segment 70). At session 6, Mrs. Kim stated: “ Because my father was not a type of person who took care of family. He had only momentary thought… Without any consideration for the family for future. For my mother…I mean his personality might be good trait in some way for someone else. But my family needed the money to live. My mother did not like his acting like that. So any way… I don’t know if it was due to his soft-hearted personality or something else, he had a lot of failure at the business…..” (excerpt from topic segment 6). “…..I was really active when I was young. Active…energetic side and gloomy side always existed side by side……The gloomy part is due to 113114 my course of life. …..Looking back on the living, it was very tough….You could make a living in Korea only when you had money. Not when you worked hard…..” (excerpts from topic segments 9 and 10). By the session 12, “ …..I was not able to concentrate on Christina (the second daughter)…..However, the call from school made me wake up…..I really feel sorry that I cannot teach her sitting down together when it can make it a big difference” (excerpt from topic segment 29). Neutral DescriptionNeutral description was coded when a description is given and it is neutral.Sample Narratives of Sessions 1, 6, and 12For example, see previously written examples of topic segment 2 in narrative process modes.Minimal Display Minimal display was coded when minimal verbal and /or vocal display is presented. For example, “Mhmm, Yeah, and Ah!” And also non-verbal display is indicative of it. The instance is attentive and silent listening attitude during the time when the therapist and other family members speak aloud. Sample Narratives from Sessions 1, 6, and 12T: Yeah, up to now we have talked about how you came to America and got started marriage life, the family, and the difficult family relationship with in-laws. C: Yeah…(very attentively) (ending topic segment 55/beginning topic segment 56).T: In fact, today it is the first time for us to meet with each other and I have several questions to ask about …I wonder how may I call you, Kim?… C: Mrs. Kim.114115T: Is it comfortable with you that I call you Mrs. Kim?C: Yeah, Kim.T: Ah!. Kim. Yeah…(ending topic segment 56/beginning topic segment 56 ).I know you, Mrs. Kim from …at the school there is a social worker, isn’t it? C: Yeah.T: [looking at the notes at the table] The teacher’s name is…C: Ms. Park.T: Yeah. Ms. Park is there too …C: Mr. Park.T: Yes. And in fact there is Pat Carlson, social worker…C: Oh! Is that so?T: American social worker.C: Well, I didn’t know that well [smiling]T: Yes, because it is a public school…C: Yeah, yeah…[being attentive].T: there is a social worker and she called me first.C: Ah! She did?T: Yes….(ending topic segment 56/beginning topic segment 57 ).So now I would like to share with you what I have known about you…the things that I know about your family according to what the American social worker told me when she called me. C: Yeah, yeah…[with some tension]….”115116SummaryIn summary, in a sign of her progress in involvement modes, Mrs. Kim appeared likely to be mostly positive and least negative as the sessions went on. It also happened to Mrs. Kim that positive and negative involvement and minimal involvement evolved together during sessions 1, 6, and 12. The sign of the great progress in involvement modes underscored why Mrs. Kim’s self- identification with positive figures seemed to have energized her usually stuffy shadowy image. By session 6, compared with the fixed scripted tedium of the previous four sessions’ conversation since the first session, Mrs. Kim’s genuine description and re-description and explanations of her problems and how to solve them came across as refreshingly constructive and generative. Mother’s Temporal OrientationTemporal orientation involves six tense categories: (1) distant past, (2) recent past, (3) past/present, (4) present, and (5) past/present/future, and (6) future. Table and sample narratives are included. The result of the analysis of the core client’s temporal orientation is presented in Table 5-3.The scores on the mother’s temporal orientation are noted with the percentage (%) of each temporal orientation category, including distant past, recent past, past-present, present, past-present-future, and future. Distant past shows highest percentage points, 58.0 % during the first session and decrease sharply to 16.6 % at the sixth session and 15.7 % by the session 12. Recent past appears the same percentage points, 18.6 % between sessions 1 and 6 and decreases to 6.9 % by the session 12. Past and present temporality shows sharp increases during sessions 1, 6, and 12. This increase is 5.8 percentage points from 5.9 % to 11.7 % between sessions 1 and 6, and 6.9 percentage points from 11.7 % to 18.6 % between sessions 6 and 12. Present temporal orientation shows a very sharp increase during sessions of 1 and 6. This increase is 26.4 percentage points from 15.7 % to 42.1 %. But it falls down 2.9 percentage points from 11611742.1 % to 39.2 % between sessions 6 and 12. Past-present-future temporality continues increasing from 1.0 % at the first session through 2.7 % during session 6 to 10.8 % by session 12. 117118Table 5.3. Quality of Change in Mother’s Temporal Orientation Session 1 6 12 (Type of Interview) (Individual) (Individual) (Family) Temporality Distant Past 59 (58.0) 24 (16.6) 16 (15.7) Recent Past 19 (18.6) 27 (18.6) 7 (06.9) Past & Present 6 (05.9) 17 (11.7) 19 (18.6) Present 16 (15.7) 61 (42.1) 40 (39.2) Past & Present & Future 1(01.0) 12 (08.3) 9 (08.8) Future 1 (01.0) 4 (02.7) 11 (10.8) Total Segment 102(100.0%) 144(100.0%) 102 (100.0%) Total Interview Time 55 (Min) 90 (Min) 130 (Min)Distant PastDistant past was coded when the core client, Mrs. Kim talked about events or issues in the distant past. Sample Narratives of the Sessions 1, 6, and 12The examples are previously written under the title with narrative process modes (see topic segments 3 and 4). Recent Past Recent past was coded when the client, Mrs. Kim talked about events or issues in the recent past. Sample Narratives of the Sessions 1, 6, and 12For example, see previously written topic segment 1 of narrative process modes. Past/Present Past/present was coded when the client, Mrs. Kim talked about events or issues both in the past and present orientation.118119Sample Narratives of the Sessions 1, 6, and 12At session 1, Mrs. Kim stated: “So I think that in fact my family has problem….But I knew the problem and tired hard to control by myself. I know the effect of my husband’s hot temperature on all the family, but I controlled over that so did he.” (excerpt from topic segment 91). At session 6, the client stated: “Christina (the second daughter) is afraid of spanking as well. Even so she still fools around. So …I …so far, I didn’t hit Susan (the first daughter) on the head even slightly. But I sometimes hit Christina on the head slightly…..” (excerpt from topic segment 17).By session 12, the client said: “ ‘To my loving mother’ [change in voice to a very retrospective and lower tone]: Mother! It seems like to a very old story but I think that it was so painful and difficult childhood for me. The most memorable thing…was when I went out to meet with you who came back home from work at night. You and I both were rolling down continuously on the steep bank path while I carried you on the back of the bicycle. And yet mother!…I imagine how I would be like if I were born in a very rich family. It is told that adversity at early days is worth buying. But now I am so thankful to the hardship although it was given against my will-wish for me. Because of the sheer strength, at present time, I am doing my best while thinking about the tough days, the very … hardest days…always thinking about the suffering days. Because in those days it was very unusual for women to go out to work and make money, I remembered our living was so tough. But mother, I am so much thankful to you and I always appreciate your love deeply in my heart. In that way, you brought up your all three children well and gave them away in a good marriage.Thank you, mother…” (excerpt from the topic segment 4). 119120Present Present orientation was coded when the client, Mrs. Kim talked about events or issues in the present. Sample Narratives of Sessions 1, 6, and 12For example, see the previously written topic segment 2 of the narrative process modes. Past/Present/FuturePast-present-future was coded when the client, Mrs. Kim talked about events or issues in the connection of the past, present and future orientation or the past and future or the present and future simultaneously.Sample Narratives from Sessions 1, 6, and 12At session 1, the client stated: “…..Christina (the second daughter) is just in the prime of fooling around…..But I think that as the age of seven go by, she will be all right” (excerpt from topic segment 70). During session 6, “ I always tell my mom that when she goes to heaven, she will deserve praise by the God to think back her life. She lived that well.” ( excerpt from topic segment 28). By the session 12, asked about how she could achieve the best harmony in marriage and family life, Mrs. Kim immediately responded, “ I have tried hard to practice a life with the love God gives us…Well, in a large way, that’s why I could stay married with my husband so far. Although I cannot follow the great way through which God loves us, I try to do my best with a will…to model on His love even only a thousandth or even an infinitesimal part of the God’s love.This is what I thought, what I think, and what I will think. If I would think about how …I as a mother, lead my family better, I think that if all of us see each other with love, then we could never yell at each other; although it is given to hit children, we need to have our mind up to hit children with love in mind; and for my daughters, Susan and Christina, love each other, knowing 120121 that your sister is a very special sibling and the only one in the world” (excerpt from the topic segment 89). Future Future was coded when the client, Mrs. Kim talked about events or issues in the future.Sample Narratives of from Sessions 1, 6, and 12At session 1, the client stated: “ …..Next Friday will work out fine with me. There will be anything special……then I will see you [therapist] next Friday.” (excerpt from topic segment 102). At session 6, the client asked the therapist: “ Please give me a call again next Friday.” (excerpt from topic segment 144). By session 12, the client involved the following dialogue: T: So, who would be most surprised at in the family, mother, father, grandmother or Susan?Who was the most surprised at knowing that Christina could think something herself and knows what she has to do? Who was the most delighted? [looking at all the family members in thinking seriously] F: It would be me [smiling].T: Oh!. You would be the most?F: Yes [firmly].T: Who else then? Whom did she make happy?…the next one is mother? Or grandmother?M: Now because the grandmother hasn’t heard what Christina talked about. But of course she would be surprised at, too.T: Uhmmm.M: So, I am going to tell my mother today…(excerpt from the topic segment 31) 121122SummaryIn summary, in regard to temporality, the circle between retrospective (past orientation) and prospective (future orientation) appeared apparent in telling-retelling lived life stories. Mrs. Kim reorganized across the past, present and future. She made consistent connections among the three. And the old herself was able to renew her strength with new herself in future. Therapist Inter-SubjectivityThis last section presents the results of the analysis of therapist inter-subjectivity. This entails two interrelated processes: (1) therapist interactional modes and (2) therapist dialogical- relational process. Therapist Interactional ModesIn this section, therapist interactional modes are presented, which addresses the characteristics of the therapeutic context of the client/worker relationship. This is central to achievement of any effective and humane therapeutic process and result. Specific narrative examples of each coding categories of therapist interactional modes are seen in detail in Appendix B. Coding of therapist interactional modes category is made partially by revising Stuttgurt Interactional Category System/2. This includes speech acts and speech regulation in interaction of other aspects of speech acts. In a way, it attempts to fit into both theoretical concepts used for the study and therapeutic conversation unique to the relationship between a bilingual speaking client and therapist, including both Korean and English. Each segment unit was coded as including no more than three categories of interactional modes because generally the chunk of each segment unit has more than three complete statements in the transcripts. The results of the analysis of therapist interactional modes are presented in Table 6.1. As shown in Table 6.1, therapist interactional modes changed throughout sessions 1, 6, and 12: (1) 122123 asking became less and less used from 25.6 % at session 1 through 12.8 % at session 6 to 8.3 % at session 12; (2) in contrast, telling became more and more used from 30.5 % at the first session through 45.7 % during the sixth session to 78.7 % by session 12; and (3) finally, listening appeared to be used more at sessions 1 and 6 with 43.9 % and 41.5 % than at session 12 with 13 %.123124Table 6.1: Quality of Therapist Interactional ModesSession 1 6 12 (Type of Iinterview) (Individual) (Individual) (Family) Therapist Interactional Modes Asking Questioning 35 (16.9) 11 ( 3.8) 2 (0.9) Exploring 18 ( 8.7) 26 ( 9.0) 17 (7.4) Total:53 (25.6) 37(12.8) 19 (8.3)Telling Initiating 32 (11.1) 56 (24.2) 3 (1.4) Directing 7 ( 2.4) 28 (12.1) 2 (1.0) Continuing 12 3 ( 1.0) * (0.0) ( 5.8) Affirming 50 (17.3) 52 (22.5) 9 ( 4.4) Disaffirming * ( 0.0) * (0.0) * ( 0.0) Advising * ( 0.0) 2 (0.9) * (0.0) Fantasizing * ( 0.0) 8 (3.5) * (0.0) Interpreting 16 ( 5.5) 20 (8.6) 6 (2.9) Informing 2 ( 0.7) * (0.0) 5 (2.4) Disclosing 2 ( 0.7) 9 (3.9) * (0.0) Reflecting 26 20 ( 7.0) 7 (3.0) (12.6) Total: 63 (30.5) 132 82 (45.7) (78.7)Listening Silence * ( 0.0) * (0.0) 5 ( 2.4) Minimal display 86 120 (41.5) 30 (13.0) (41.5) Total: 91 (43.9) 120 (41.5) 30 (13.0)124125Total Segments 207 (100.0 289 (100.0%) 231 (100.0%) %)Note: * marks indicate the missing therapist variables that were not applied in the coding process.125126Therapist Dialogical-Relational ProcessThis section presents therapist dialogical-relational process. This includes three major features related to the concept of not-knowing that characterize the therapist who engages in dialogical conversation and collaborative relationship: (1) responsive listening,(2) maintaining coherence with the client’s subjective story, and (3) asking conversational questions. This involves characteristic descriptions of the therapeutic conversational process of co- construction of multiple possibilities to construct a new family relationship and self-narratives (Anderson & Goolishian, 1992; Epston & White, 1992; Laird,1988). This process is the dialogical creation of meaning as a major fundamental internal resource for positive change in parent abusive behavior. The coding categories for therapist dialogical-relational process were created by the author, based on Anderson’s (1997) theory of collaborative language systems approach as a shared inquiry. Originally Anderson identifies six intertwined features related to the concept of not-knowing that characterize therapists who engage in dialogical conversations and collaborative relationships, to serve as guidelines to help us learn how to create them. These guidelines originally include: trust and believe; asking conversational questions; listen and respond; maintain coherence; stay in sync; and honor a client’s story. But this study reorganized this concept, making the core elements of therapy process more focused on and relevant to the purpose of this study because these features overlapped and are intertwined together. So then three major elements of responsive listening, maintaining coherence with the client’s subjective story, and asking conversational questions were selected and coded, which is directly related to the research question and hypotheses under the study. Along with Table, sample narratives are included. 126127Table 6.2 presents the result of the analysis of therapist dialogical-relational process during therapy sessions 1, 6, and 12. The scores on the therapist dialogical-relational process are noted with the percentage (%) of each dialogical-relational process category, including responsive listening, maintaining coherence with client’s subjective story, and asking conversational questions. First, the therapist’s responsive listening showed a moderate increase from 55 % to 67 % between sessions 1 and 6 and a sharp decrease from 67 % to 38 % between sessions 6 and 12. This responsive listening was highest during sessions 1 and 6 except for session 12 with four family members involved. Next, as for maintaining coherence with client’s subjective story, therapist showed highest scores, 18 % during the first session, fell down to 9 % at the sixth, and slightly up to 12 % by the session 12. But in general, the score on this category showed lowest compared to other two categories over the sessions 1, 6, and 12. Lastly, asking conversational questions was 27 % at the first session and 24 % during the sixth session. But by session 12 which was the first family session, it showed a sharp increase, jumping 26 percentage points from24 % to 50 % between sessions 6 and 12. 127128Table 6.2: Quality of Therapist Dialogical-Relational ProcessSession 1 6 12 (Type of Interview) (Individual) (Individual) (Family)Therapist Dialogical-Relational Process Responsive listening 56 (55) 97 (67) 39 (38) Maintaining coherence with the 18 (18) 12 ( 9) 12 (12) Client’s subjective story Asking conversational questions 28 (27) 35 (24) 52 (50) Total Segments of Transcripts 102 (100%) 144 (100%) 103 (100 %)Responsive Listening Clients say they want to be listened to and heard. Responsive-active listening-hearing is the natural therapist manner and attitude that communicates and demonstrates sincere interest, respect, and curiosity. It was coded when the therapist showed the several ways: (1) therapist plunged into client’s world and showed an interest in that client’s view of the problem, its cause, its location, and its solution; (2) therapist learned client’s expectations of therapy and therapist; (3) therapist showed an openness to client’s ideological base-her reality, beliefs, and experiences, valuing the client’s knowledge about her pain, misery, or dilemma; (4) therapist wanted to know more about what the client had just said or may not yet have said by asking questions, making comments, extending ideas, wondering and sharing private thoughts aloud; and (5) therapist gave as much room and time for the client’s story as necessary without interrupting if the client chose to talk for a long time (Anderson, 1997). Sample Narratives of Sessions 1, 6, and 12Since the beginning of session 1, the therapist listened patiently without interrupting the client’s long-lasting storytelling as follows. 128129C: In fact, I …[came here today] because of family problem…T: Uhmm.C: Uhmm…there is no special problem. As I see, uhmm…my husband is …I married …First of all, I am going to tell you about the marriage.T: Yeah, yeah.C: I married in Korea…when I was young …the situation was …before marriage…my family was …so poor. Then I grew old enough to get married…and also in that situation, my younger brother died in a car accident. ..In the very poor, difficult situation…T: Uhmmm.C: [He] died in a car accident. [He] died…and I was in a very difficult situation and quit my job. …..T: Yeah. Aha! (excerpts from topic segments 2 and 3 ). For sample narratives of session 6, see the previously given narrative example (topic segments19 and 20) at the fourth stage of internal dialogue in speech development. For sample narratives of session 12, see the previously given narrative example (topic segments 19 and 20) at the fourth stage of internal dialogue in speech development. On other occasions, the therapist asked as follows: “ So that I am not misunderstanding, are you saying…? “ “Is that similar to…?” “ Does that mean…?” or “ A moment ago you said…did you mean that?” Such comments and questions were offered in a tentative, curious manner that conveyed genuine interest in getting it right.129130Maintaining Coherence With Client’s Subjective StoryClients say they want a chance to tell their stories. Therapist’s maintenance of coherence with client’s subjective story is a critical dimension, which centers internal resources for change in parental abusive behavior. In order to entertain new and novel ideas, there has to be room for the familiar experiences and descriptions. “Thus, it allowed the client room for movement, and energy was not taken up with promoting, protecting, or convincing the therapist of her view. It helps lessen the chance that therapist’s voice might dominate and shape the story to be told and thus preclude the client’s version and the development of future versions with helpful nuances. Toward this end, therapist must create and safeguard room for the client’s first-person narrative” (Anderson, 1997, p. 157). It was coded when the therapist related in these ways: (1) therapist involved working within the client’s reality--her language, vocabulary, and metaphor--about the child abuse problem and its imagined solutions; (2) therapist allowed room for the client’s familiar experiences and descriptions; (3) therapist used cooperative and collective language to invite the other into conversation and include/refer to all involved (such as we, all the families); (4) therapist prevented valuing therapist knowledge over a client’s; (5) therapist let client be center stage, allowing her leading with her story as she wanted to tell, not being guided by what therapist thought was important and pre-selected to hear. Sample Narratives of Sessions 1, 6, and 12 At session 1, the therapist showed as follows: T: Again I would like to thank you for your joining me with this dissertation research.C: Yeah. The teacher also was so kind to me in the school and I am so thankful to her.T: There she was too?C: Yeah.T: Yeah.C: In fact,…I [came here today] because of family problem…130131T: Uhmm.C: Uhm…There is no special problem as I see….My husband is …I married…First I am going to tell you about the marriage.T: Yeah, Yeah” (excerpts from topic segments 1 and 2). C: In my family the roles are completely reversed, so to speak.T: Uhmm, position…C: Woman does what the man is supposed to doing my husband would do what the woman has to do at home.T: Yeah.C: And my mom would do the household work.T: Your own mother?C: Yes, my own mother.T: Uh-huh, O.K..C: That’s how my family works out now.T: That can be a complementary cooperation?C: Yeah, that’s right (excerpt from topic segment 87). On another occasion, therapist was able to be open as follows: T: [summarizing] Yeah. Up to now we talked about how you came to America and started married life, the family, and the difficult family with in-laws. In fact today it is first for us to meet with together and I have several questions…I wonder how I may call you. Kim?C: Mrs. Kim.T: Is it comfortable with you that I would call you Mrs. Kim?C: Yeah, Kim.T: Ah!, Kim. Yeah…I know Mrs. Kim from …At the school there is a social worker, Isn’t it?C: Yeah.131132T: The teacher’s name is…[looking a the note on the table] C: Mrs. Park.T: Yeah, Mrs. Park….In fact, Maria, social worker…C: Oh! Is that so?T: American social worker.C: Well, I didn’t know much about that [smiling]. T: Yeah. Because it is a public school…C: Yeah, yeah…T: There is a social worker an in fact, the social worker called me first.C: Ah! She did…T: Yes,. So I would like to share with you what I know about…the fact that I know about Mrs. Kim family according to what American social worker told me when she called me….. (excerpt from topic segments 55 to 58).At the very beginning of session 6, therapist let the client be center stage with her story as follows:T: Uhmm…I was thinking about what we are going to talk about today for an hour.C: Yeah.T: We have met together five times so far. I think that during the last five meetings, you Have told me very important life events in your life.C: Yeah.T: These were personally very important life events in your life, several parts of many stories. Today at first, I hope we can put together these parts and draw some meaning out of it so that it can help us to resolve the problems we are dealing with and help you to have better relationship with your husband and to discipline better your children. Secondly, I want to talk about what we did last session, your self-identity you have. It seems that you have132133 strong self-image with self-responsibility and hard working style that have related to what you are now. That’s why I asked you last moment at the last session, where the self-image comes from.C: Yeah. [listening very attentively] T: I want to talk about that, and finally, we can talk to see if we will send the invitation note to your husband [smiling] C: [smiling together] T: We will talk about that later again.C: O.k. (excerpt from the topic segment 1). By session 12, the family therapist demonstrated her ability to be able to maintain coherence with client’s preferred narratives by presenting: “Thank you for coming today. I appreciate again coming here all together and having time in your family life. Actually I have two purposes to do with your family here. One is my doctoral dissertation research and the second is working with your family. So our conversation today could be helpful to your family and other families that have similar situation like your family. …..Today I have something to do with all of you. Actually I brought this on this table [showing the tape]. I would want for your family to listen to this music. The title is love. This comes form Koran singer who is the gospel singer…..I would like to share it with your family. First of all, listen and then we can go with Mrs. Kim’s letter and Christina’s. And we can talk more together….. [after music over] I hope this song could bring to your family sunshine for love and then your family could enjoy how love is good…..That’s my hope today for your family ” (excerpts from topic segments 1 and 2). On another occasion, the therapist showed as follows: M: Well…T: What is your idea, Mrs. Kim?M: I don’t think my husband understand what you said.T: He didn’t ? Uhmm…M: Honey, let’s say that all our family members do what we are supposed to do. If I need your 133134 help, would you…[awkwardly smiling but seriously].T: Of course you need his help. You’ve never spoken about that, have you?M: No, I didn’t. But when I really need you…F: [seeming surprised at]T: UhmmM: Uh, I had so many times that I need his help.T: And so now?M: Now I also need his help…but sometimes he just goes back home when he doesn’t like to work at the store. Whether I need him or not doesn’t matter with him.T: Uhmm.M: Whenever he does so, I cannot feel the love in the family relationship at all. Actually I really want to know about how he thinks about it.T: Yeah. [toward father]. What are you thinking now? Your wife is talking about herself who needs your help and likes to get help from you as a husband. I think that it is the way of how she feels happy in marriage. F: I understand that…I did that way at home but particularly it is in the business part.T: Uhmm.F: For the business part…it is very hard to talk with her about something because she has her own subjective idea. I wish that she could accept my opinion…..I feel useless…..I think that’s why I just come home instead of helping her out with business.T: So, that’s what’s been happening.F: Yes (excerpt from topic segment 80).134135Asking Conversational QuestionsClients say that one of the most helpful aspects of successful therapy experience is the therapist’s questions. From a postmodern perspective, because emphasis is on openness to new narrative and because the therapy narrative can never be known outside the moment, questions are always asked from the position of not-knowing. It was coded when the therapist demonstrated such ways: (1) therapist questioned more likely from inside the local conversation, within the conversation; (2) therapist helped the client tell, clarify, and expand on a story, opening up new avenues and explore what is known or not-known; and (3) therapist learned about and avoid misconceptions of the said and the not-yet said, leading to a further elaboration of descriptions and explanations.Sample Narratives of Sessions 1, 6, and 12During the first session, the therapist asked a series of questions related to the core issue of child beating behavior for the client: “ I wonder what has happened?…..and what sort of conversation did you and the worker at DCFS during the time of investigation ...what sort of conversation did you and teacher have recently? And finally I wonder what is your expectation of therapy with me?” (excerpt from topic segment 56). Other sample narratives of asking questions of session1 were as follows:“After you married your husband and came together to America, who was here at the time?” “How did your husband’s family immigrate to America?” “When did they come to America? “When did you come to America?” “ You married in 1983 but came to America in 1985, so you waited to come here?” “ Your husband’s family were all in America and your husband alone was in Korea, how did you get married to him?” “ How did your parents think of your husband?” “How did your younger brother die?” “You said before your parents opposed your marriage, why did they object?” “You decided to get married him after date for two or three days, what did you think make your mind up to marry him?” “Are you running the business by 135136 yourself? Is there anyone who helps you out? How can you do that by yourself?” “What does your husband do particularly?”At session 6 therapist asked the following questions: “ Where does your strong sense of self-responsibility come from?” “ What did you experience, for instance?” “What do you think the influence would be if parents do not do their duties as parents?” “Your mother had to work for daily wages to put food on the table because your father failed at every business and there was not enough money in your family. At that time, how do you think others saw your family?” So with absence of your father, your mother was very strict? How did your mother discipline her children? You just said she was very cold as stone [smiling]” “Do you think that the way you raised your children is similar to those of your mother? Being strict?”“How did your mother spank you when she had to do?” “Where did the idea of helping your mother come from?” “How do you think about the influence of Christianity on your life?” “We’ve talked about a lots of parts with your lived experiences. How can we make sense of these pictures of your family by putting all parts together?” “ How can you make connection of all those parts we talked about?” “ How can your mother-in-law influence your relationship with your husband?” “What kind of father’s position could be problematic exercising authority in your family?” “What is your mother’s thinking about your husband’s excessive use of authority?” “Now in your family every one yells at each other and are nervous, is it the way that you are trying to find new possibility to discuss something about? Or is it the question about new way?” “ Have you ever talked with your husband about coming to therapy?” “What can we do together for invitation note to your husband?” By session 12 when it came to discuss the issue of child’s aversive behavior all together and the mother began to see the change in the child’s aversive behavior, therapist asked the question to the child who had been beaten by family members such as mother, father, and grandmother: “ How did you decide whether to show your good things or not?; what is the better way for you to change your behavior toward doing on your own?….If your mom threatens you, is it good? Or 136137 what if she praises and trusts you? Which one would be good for you? Can you tell us what you want, what you need? …..” (excerpt from topic segment 37). Other questions asked by the therapist were as follows:“ Did you listen to what your mom read?” “Particularly, Mr. Kim, what do you understand?” “You talked about yourself born in the wealthy family, what if you were born in the poor family?” “It seemed that you, Mrs. Kim experienced frustration, disappointment or hopelessness.This is my thought. What do you think about that? how did you experience your anger or rage at your father?” “Christina wrote down a lots of things to do, how did that come out?” “If you try to understand the problem with new perspective, how would you explain Christina’s problem?” “Who would be surprised at Christina’s new thinking most, mother, father, grandma, or Christina?” Who did she make happy most?” “What would be most helpful to you?” “If your mom does something to do with you, what would be most helpful to you?” “If you are mom, how can you help your child to do the things she need to do?” “How can you help your daughter to do that way?” “ How long can you help out, until what age?” “What kind of mother do you expect your children see in you?” “If you want your children see you as a disciplinary mother, how can we make it happen? How can you make your children see you as a well-disciplining mother?” “If your mom and father get along well, could you be better to be with your father?” “If your mom and father cooperate together well, helping each other mutually, how would your relationship with your sister be different?” “What would parents need to change, making harmony in marriage?” “Father, you saw your father being violent at your mother at your early ages, what was your experience as a son? Do you think your father was fair in treating your mother?” “ How would we achieve the task to live with harmony in marriage? Specifically, what do you have in mind?” “Father, you look so comfortable today. This is only the third time I met with you, but you showed more of self-dignity as a father than before. What do you experience with today?” “How do you feel about being here today?” 137138Summary In summary, therapist inter-subjectivity helps the client find new ways to dialogue about those parts of the mother’s story that concerned or alarmed her, such as the child abuse problem. Therapist inter-subjectivity, including interactional modes and dialogical-relational process involved several communicative activities: pre-shared understanding, shared understanding, and metonymical forms of talks. The first one used practically for coordination of diverse social action, materially moving client. The second one is preparing activities (Shotter, 1993, p.107-109). The Kim family was deeply grateful for the exhilarating experience of joint efforts rendered in the making of the present family dialogical conversation throughout the last session 12. All the family members who participated in the therapeutic conversation deeply appreciated the contribution made by the therapist at the end of the last session. They left the Family Service Center, picturing a brighter future of their family life.138139Thematic Analysis In this section, the results of thematic analysis are presented. The results include four major themes and 12 domains of family relationship meanings, six themes of parental caring behavior meaning, and parent cohesive (child aversive) behavior change significant to the lived life for the core client, Mrs. Kim. As for the relationship between the family relationship meaning and parental caring behavior meaning, the themes of parental caring behavior meaning were mainly associated with the themes of harmonious relation, and spiritual relation. The themes of parent cohesive (child aversive) behavior change were mostly associated was with the violent relation domain in entangled relation theme. The sample narratives (direct quotes from the data) are presented along with tables. Descriptive elaboration (detailed descriptions of the direct quotes) of each theme is found Appendix D. The thematic line is one of two major structural components of identity as a story in this study. Thematic lines are recurrent ideational clusters or organization in stories. Although the kinds of thematic lines present in the case of the Korean American client’s family life, the analysis under the study mainly focuses on the three major features related to coding categories. Interpretive method would propose that “it is the meaning that family members attribute to events that determines their behavior rather than proposing that some underlying structure or dysfunction in the family determines the behavior and interactions of family members” (White & Epston, 1990, p.3). The family’s interactions-the family’s meanings and beliefs-become the areas for change. Family Relationship Meaning 139140The results of the analysis of family relationship meaning include 4 themes that are divided into 12 domains. Themes related to the coding categories and reflect the core client mother’s change in meaning in family relationships. The themes are:Theme A: Entangled relation(Domain 1) unparented relation, (Domain 2) violent relation, and (Domain 3) dishonored relation, Theme B: Multicultural relation(Domain 4) collective-help with self-help relation, (Domain 5) authoritative/hierarchical with equal/achieved status relation, (Domain 6) advantaged with disadvantaged parental relation,Theme C: Harmonious relation(Domain 7) self-disciplined relation, (Domain 8) affectionate relation, (Domain 9) synchronous relation, Theme D: Spiritual relation(Domain 10) normal Christian relation, (Domain 11) retribution, and (Domain 12) spiritual leadership relation. The summary of the results of the analysis of change in family relationship meaning over the sessions of 1, 6, and 12 is presented in Table 7.140141Table 7: Quality of Change in Mother’s Family Relationship Meaning Session 1 6 12Interview Type Individual Individual Family Family Relationship Meaning Entangled Relation (“Han”)* Unparented relation 1-2-x-4-5 1-x-x-4-5 x-x-x-x-x Dishonored relation 1-2-3-4-x x-x-x-4-x 1-x-x-x-x Violent relation 1-2-x-x-x x-2-x-x-x x-x-x-x-xMulticultural Relation Collective with self-help relation x-x-3-4-5 x-x-x-4-5 x-x-x-x-x Authoritarian/hierarchical with 1-2-3-4-x 1-2-x-4-5 x-2-x-x-x equal/achieved relation Educational advantage with x-2-x-x-x x-x-x-x-x x-2-x-x-x disadvantage in parenting Harmonious Relation Self-disciplined relation x-x-x-x-x 1-2-x-x-x 1-2-x-x-x Affectionate relation (“Chung”)** x-x-x-x-x 1-x-3-4-5 1-2-3-x-5 Synchronous relation x-x-x-x-x 1-x-x-x-5 1-2-3-x-xSpiritual Relation Normal Christian relation 1-2-x-x-x x-xx-x-5 x-x-x-x-x Retribution (“Ob-bo”)** * x-x-x-x-x 1-x-x-x-x x-x-x-x-x Spiritual leadership relation x-x-x-x-x 1-2-x-4-x 1-2-3-x-x * “Han” is an indigenous Korean construct with a rich psychological, social, cultural background and connotations to refer to an emotional residue of the mind ((Lee, 1986, 1991). ** “Chung” is an indigenous Korean concept to refer to a strong psychological and emotional bond called affection (Choi, 1994). *** “Ob-bo” is a concept that was first coined by the teaching of Buddhism to refer to retribution for the deeds of a former life.Note: The numbers refer to family subsystems that involve family relationship meanings: 1 for Husband-Wife; 2 for Parent-Child; 3 for siblings; 4 for in-laws; 5 for family of origin; x for not-applicable. Theme A: Entangled Relation (“Han”) The first important theme is entangled family relation (“Han”). This theme related to mainly several overlapped coding categories: 1) fermenting in “Han” transformation process; 2) monologue in dialogical speech development; and 3) single/social perspective taking. This theme141142 is divided into three major domains of unparented relation, dishonored relation, and violent relation. Domain 1: Unparented Relation This domain includes characteristic description of how Mrs. Kim experienced unparented relation in her family relationship. Unparented relation domain unfolded over the sessions of 1, 6, and 12. This was associated with relationship with her parents in deprivation, her parents-in- law, and her second child who was beaten by her. In particular, it was evident that although throughout sessions 1, 6, and 12, the domain of unparented relation in the family of origin remained still the same, this domain began to be transformed into alternative domain such as affectionate relation in the theme of harmony from session 6 which enriched session 12. That is to say, at session 6, unparented relation was becoming a less central domain of entangled relation theme. Sample Narratives in Sessions 1 and 6 At the very beginning of the first session, Mrs. Kim started with telling a long story of her marriage. She stated: “In fact, I came here because of family problem... , but I feel that there is no special problem. Marriage...I would like to start with telling my marriage.....I got married in Korea... When I was young...the situation was...in my maidenhood, my family was...so poor. ThenI grew up old enough to get married and people around me often said to me to get married and I took a look at the man who came from America ...... In that situation, my younger brother died in a car accident [slightly trembling voice]...... In a very poor, difficult situation..... Because I wanted to get away from the situation...from my family’s poor economic condition.....And I thought I was attracted to him because he was told that he came from America, but when I met him I really didn’t like him.” (excerpt from topic segments 3, 4, & 5). Another example was her relation to mother-in-law. She said: “.....It was so hard for me to do the business with my husband and we had to give it up. I couldn’t do business with my husband any more. And also I142143 couldn’t do alone myself. The child was already grown u. About two year-old, she was taken care by mother-in-law because it was a time that I lived with her together...... Not only I couldn’t do the business, also I couldn’t live with her any more. Because when her son made me so much difficult, then she had to take care of me. And yet because she got an idea, she led a hard married life...... ”(excerpt from topic segments 25 & 26). “My second daughter had difficulty in reading at school...... so then I just pushed my oldest daughter to help out the second one…..” (excerpt from topic segments 78 & 79). “I was not able to concern the children much before because I hadn’t yet had the business on my own and that limited what I could do for the children” (excerpt from topic segment 84). During session 6, examples which reflected unparented relations with her parents, in particular, with her father were: “Because my father always lived as he pleased himself and didn’t take care of family, the children became the final victim of the consequence, I guess.... When parents didn’t really accomplish the role as parents...children under the circumstances suffered..... My father wasn’t the same person as the one who didn’t bring money to the family at all when he made it, but he failed a lot when he got started the business and he is very soft- hearted” (excerpt from topic segment 3). “I was the most helpful child to my mother. I just helped anything else I could do for the parents..... Because housework was the same and my mother who worked first outside trusted me..... I did housework, had a job to make a money, and supported the school tuition for my siblings. That was all that I could help out my mother”(excerpt from topic segment 24). Domain 2: Dishonored Relation This domain includes those characteristic descriptions of how Mrs. Kim as a first immigrant generation Korean, wife, daughter-in-law, and mother experienced dishonored relation143144 in her family. This involves the paralyzed affection along with both betrayed mate choice and excessive regulation and oppressive discipline in the power distance family relationships such as relationships between in-laws, particularly, mother-in-law and daughter-in-law and between husband and wife. Sample Narratives of Sessions 1, 6, and 12 In the first session, Mrs. Kim said: “After marriage and coming to America... I found out that even the strange was not the word... and he took a lot of medication...... he took the medication for mental disease...... He was really so, so bad.” (excerpt from topic segments 6 & 7). “In a very poor, difficult situation..... Because I wanted to get away from the situation...from my family’s poor economic condition.....And I thought I was attracted to him because he was told that he came from America, but when I met him. I really didn’t like him. So... anyway I felt like going to America since my family was so poor...Then to put it bluntly, I was thinking that even if it’s going to happen to me to get separated from him in America I would still go there. That’s how I married him.” (excerpt from topic segments 4 & 5). When therapist asked the question of what made her to decide to marry him, Mrs. Kim answered: “Well, I...I...I...didn’t decide to get married because of the husband. And those people were lying to me. How they were lying to me?The husband’s families, sister-in-law and all the persons here and parents-in-law, wrote a letter to me while the husband was in Korean for a week...... They wrote that the husband was working and I believed that he was working...... as a dental technician...... He was told the way and I just trusted. I thought that if he was so, then it was going to be well with me.” (excerpt from topic segment 49). “My mother-in-law took me to church although I hated to go to church. That was the first thing that I had to do...... And instead of taking care of me, the mother-in-law led me to a very hard married life...... And also my father-in-law didn’t allow me even to touch the money that I made at the store, so did my husband...... My husband distrusted me so much.....” (excerpt from topic segments 15, 16, & 17). When therapist asked the question of how she got a wedding ceremony when the husband came alone to Korean and his families were in America, she 144145 answered: “ Well...my mother-in-law was so biased. How she was biased was that she treated the rich well and not for the poor...... When their daughter had a wedding, parents in-law came to Korea, but not for their son’s wedding...... Because they might think that the bride with whom their son found and got married was not going to live a long married life and they were much displeased with me.....” (excerpt from topic segments 37, 38, & 39). By the sixth session, she stated: “My mother told me that today she received a call from my mother-in-law and...I asked her what was told and my mother feels so sorry to me and so she tried to talk about her daughter’s hard work alone. But what my mother-in-law spoke about was just that...the money, money last time borrowed was never paid back and the store also wasn’t able to be sold as it was given up without anything back...... How dare she speak to us like that? So the relationship between me and my mother-in-law is so, so entangled with ‘Han’ now” (excerpt from topic segments 68 & 69). By addressing entangled bitter emotions in relation to her mother-in-law, she told a story of a family line, “But one day I am going to speak out to my mother-in-law again after keeping it in my heart. Like I did once when I went to Texas, my mother-in-law told my mother about...a baby, ‘How could I stop the way to have a baby even though I hadn’t had a son..... I told my mother-in-law with smile, ‘Were you willing to help me out if I would be a mother of three children. Indeed, it was serious matter to me but how could you ask me to have more children, not taking a consideration of my situation at all? Now I already had a son with me...... Then she made excuse...... It was very spiteful of her to make excuse. I mean, ‘Yea! because I am your mother-in-law after all, I didn’t want the family line break with smile. I wish that she might have said like...... Then I would have understood what she said and I would have thought, ‘Oh!, she just told out of that wish.’ Then I wouldn’t have mind it any more. But her making excuse, that was the one I hated...... She said to me: ‘I just asked your mother and I didn’t mean that I told your mother to ask you to have a baby’.....” (excerpts from topic segments 71 & 72). “When the mother-in-law called me, what she said to me was that ‘Do pray! Read the Bible’ and then kept on saying that ‘What a little faith you have! [with sigh] Then 145146 it just drove me crazy. I went crazy. I thought that there is no one else above her who believes God and I am always crushed under her [with sigh]. When can I be like her.’…..” (excerpt from topic segment 74). At session 12 when addressing the core issue of unshared family love, Mrs. Kim stated, “Right now I need his help too but sometimes…he came to the store and gone when he didn’t like to do things there no matter how much I need him or not. He didn’t care at all. At that time I rally didn’t feel love in family relationship that is deep in our family…I really want to know about how he is thinking about it?…”(excerpt from topic segment 80). Domain 3: Violent Relation This domain includes those characteristic descriptions of how Mrs. Kim as a wife and mother experienced violent family relationship. Sample Narratives of Sessions 1 and 6 At the first session, Mrs. Kim said: “ Now, my husband is like the person who is so, so impatient ...he is not stable and is always anxious. And if something happened, that one should be done immediately...who can do that?. I am not capable of doing the work.....So I always had to put up with. I had to undergo all his temperament” (excerpt from topic segment 21). “..... During the business times, my painful situation was that he considered all our customer as 100 % shoplifters...... Of course, I also think the same way,..... but he had no ‘Nun-chi’ [roughly translated as perceptiveness or inches of eyes]..... So we lose our customers.... So I and my husband fought against each other. Imagine how seriously we fought there...... all the time...... every day” (excerpts from topic segments 23, 24, & 25). “..... It seems like that I just brought up a cub to be a tiger. In old days, I was healthy and strong so that I was able to fight against my husband physically...... ” (excerpt from topic segment 98). When asked the question of what happened to her to make her beat her child by therapist, she answered, “...... While training my child to wash her by herself, I hit her ...when the does not follow the direction, Korean people 146147 beat the child...to make the child “scared” of physical punishment. Like this “if you don’t do this by the time of three, I will beat you”...... Then she doesn’t do what was told by then I must hit her as I have said that I am going to hit you...... How I spanked my oldest daughter was that I had her to lie flat with her pants down...... Then I asked her how many times she deserved to get beaten...... and she answered how many. Then I spanked her as many times as she told me. Well, when you see the Bible it says that we have to discipline children with a flexible rod instead of stiff one...... So that is..., uh...a small..., uh...rule in my family, so to speak” (excerpts from the topic segments 62 & 63); “..... it wasn’t easy to be patient and control myself ...... and then I burst into a sudden anger and just hit her on her head..... (excerpt from topic segment 71). By session 6, for parental relation which remained the same as the first session, Mrs. Kim continued the same event of parental relation problem, but began alternative, different narrative description, “.....now I sometimes ..... hit her [the second daughter] on the head. And yet I really hate to hit her blindly, just whatever I see and whenever I feel nervous.” (excerpt from topic segment 17). Theme B: Multicultural RelationThe theme of multicultural relation is another important point to understand family relationship meaning in Korean immigrant family life. This theme mainly related to several intertwined coding categories: 1) reflecting in “Han” transformation process; 2) private speech; and 3) subjective perspective taking. It is divided into three domains: (Domain 4) collective help with self-help relation, (Domain 5) authoritarian/hierarchical status with equal/achieved status relation, and (Domain 6) advantaged with disadvantaged parental relation. Narrative samples in each domain were presented. More elaborate descriptions are contained in Appendix D.Domain 4: Collective Help with Self-Help Relation 147148The family is commonly viewed as those persons who aid and comfort on another in struggling through difficult times while pattern of relating for the family is reconstructing and given new meanings such that the fabric of life is continuously rewoven and new possibilities for relating emerge. This domain includes characteristic descriptions about Mrs. Kim’s collective help vs. self-help relation associated with multidimensional lived life as a immigrant Korean family in the United States of America. Sample Narratives of Sessions 1 and 6 At session 1 when addressing the issue of self-responsibility, Mrs. Kim stated: “Christina (the second daughter) relied on someone else…..and Susan (the first daughter) took good care of her sister. And whenever her sister needed something Susan did that immediately for her sister….Although it may have been appropriate when Christina was very young, But now she is a grown-up and it ought not to be allowed any more…..She lacks a sense of responsibility and she keeps shifting her responsibility to Susan and would not so what she can do” (excerpt from topic segment 61). When asked how to manage a new grocery store business by herself, Mrs. Kim stated, “ Now I have a little baby, just six months old one. It is a boy. No one can take care of him so that I asked my mother to come here promptly. So she came from Korea. …..When I just opened the store, I just asked her help because I could not get a rest even a day after opening the store... [smiling] I was not able to leave all of three children to my husband and housework too. My husband is not capable to do so...” (excerpt from topic segment 90). “…..my father-in-law supported some money to open the store…and a cousin sister-in-law who lived here and attended the college, was a part-time manager. For I was not able to speak English well so that I couldn’t do anything that required English speaking. Though her husband is her cousin brother, she became a manager …and I began to learn doing business…..” (excerpt from topic segment 11). “…..I managed the store with my husband …..and my mother-in-law was taking care of my children because we lived together…..”(excerpt from topic segment 25).148149By session 6, “I myself have a tendency as I told you before. Though I live with this kind of husband and have three children, my bother-in-law lives a very wealthy life now in Texas. If so, someone could have done like this, I thought. Shamelessly telling, ‘I could not live with this kind of husband. I could not live with this very difficult life…Give me money. What if I go to Texas to defy him?…..But I could not allow me to do so because it would be disgraceful to me….That’s why I really felt hurt very much when I borrowed money last time. It really hurt me so much …..”(excerpt from topic segment 65 & 66). “…..I always go to my mother and lie down beside her when I sleep because my little boy sleeps with her [trembling voice]…..until the baby sleeps, I always lie down together…..” (excerpt from topic segment 67). Domain 5: Authoritarian/Hierarchical Relation with Equal/Achieved Relation This domain includes characteristic descriptions of authoritarian/hierarchical relation with autonomous/achieved relation in the family associated with gender/age distinction. Sample Narratives of Sessions 1, 6, and 12 At the first session when addressing conflict relation with the mother-in-law, the client stated: “My mother-in-law took me to church so eagerly. No matter what happened. Although I hated to go to church, I had to go”(excerpt from topic segment 15). Addressing marital conflict issue, she stated: “I always had to accept whatever he did to me” (except from topic segment 21).“My husband sometimes came to the store and packing in stuffs and cleaning the store. That is only thing that he does…..My husband does cut the grass and pick up the children…..So to speak, we completely reverse the role. Woman does the thing for the man. Instead the man does the thing that woman needs to do at home…..It’s like making up for the weak points” (excerpt from topic segment 87). Addressing the difficult married live with in-laws, she stated: “If in-laws didn’t lead me to a tough life, I would not have put up with the difficult married life…..My father- in-law and mother-in-law didn’t give me any chance to look out on another world…..and they really, really led a hard married life. They drastically forced me to do something about 149150 housework” (excerpt from topic segment 27). Addressing her parenting style, she stated: “When the child does not follow the direction, Korean people beat the children to them scared of physical punishment. Like this, ‘If you don’t do this by the time I count three, I will beat you’ we say this way. Then when she didn’t do what was told by, I must hit her as I told….. But it’s not like how the American people think it is. I did not beat her like that” (excerpt from topic segment 62). “How I spank my oldest is that I had her lie flat with her pant down…..I tell her to lie flat on the bed and then I ask her how many times you deserve to get whipped. She knew how many times she deserves to get beaten if she did this and that. So she figured it out. So I asked her how many times she deserved, then she answered how many. Then I spanked her as many times as she told me to…..” (excerpt from topic segment 63).During session 6 when comparing her mother’s parenting style with herself, the client stated: “ …..My mother was very strict and cold as stone…..She told me that her temperament was quite similar to me when she was young…..She was gentle but active…..Her father was a kind of man who didn’t smile and was strict…..But he was educated at that time. Being raised in the atmosphere, my mother had some standards how to raise her children, I think. She had very strict rules and I am not strict …..Instead, I…children were spanked a lot in old days. It seemed that it was normal to get spanked in Korea. But I feel terrible when I see a child get a slap in the head or something although it was not my child…..And when I had to spank, I let the child lie flat in the bed with underwear down and I spank her with a rod as she and I agreed…..I spanked because that was what we agreed. And I did spank sharply…..My mother spanked me rather sternly when she had to. She spanked me when I made her mad…..She spanked me with a rod… she pinched me quite often…..” (excerpt from topic segments from 11 to 18). When addressing the conflict relation with mother-in-law, the client stated: “…..My mother and me are similar in character [smiling] and so it’s not the case to talk back to my mother-in-law, ‘ How dare you say that way?’…..However, some day again I am going to speak to her after I hold it for a while. Last150151 time when I went to Texas, I talked about the baby. I once told you that she said to me, ‘How did you stop having baby with not even a boy?’ …..I said to her in smile, ‘You did say so. Does it mean that you are going to help me if I have three children. Now I already have a boy but at that situation, I was so difficult…..How would you say that?’ I said that way”(excerpt from topic segment 71). Addressing marital relation, Mrs. Kim stated: “ …..When I heard that my husband bought Pizza to the teacher whenever he went to. Of course, it would be appreciation for the good teaching for his daughter. But he should not go too far……So I told him, ‘Don’t do it like that …and also I,. I , I should speak of sweetly. But when I heard that, I told him, ‘your wife makes money so hard. How can you just spend money recklessly?’…..” (excerpt from topic segment 102). Addressing father’s negative behavior toward their first daughter, the client stated:“What my mother speak of is that because he is the father, the child should follow whatever he directs to…..My mother also doesn’t like his behavior that called out his daughter studying in her room to serve him. But she stresses that it should be recognized that child should be obedient to her father and he should keep his position in the family. My mother teaches my daughter that because her father has a authoritarian position, he can do that while I think that because the father doesn’t keep his position, the child can revolt against authority when he exercises his power like that…..It doesn’t take effect on the child. It proceeds by yelling or pressure not by true heart to help the father” (excerpt from topic segments 117 & 118). “My mother is a traditional Korean style, meaning that it is the father’s authority and he is a head of house…and another thing that my mother always concerns about me is that when I get mad, I often yell at my husband no matter my children is there or not…..My mother always speak to me, ‘Don’t do that before the children.…..Because he is the head of the house you should always obey him and you shouldn’t do that’….” (excerpt from topic segments 122 & 123).During the family session 12 when addressing father’s destructive behavior toward the child, she stated: “What I see the problem, what I want is to get ready before he starts anything…..I think it would be much different if he would appreciate his daughters help when they are wise 151152 and think they would help…..I mean he drives the kid…He presses the kids to do something just as he is pleased. I think that it is not the way that we each can express love in the family” (excerpt from topic segment 63). Addressing the issue of learning difficulty for the second daughter, Mrs. Kim stated; “ I couldn’t care for her. I didn’t care about her as much as I used to do for the first daughter. Anyway, because of the first one, I did concern about her so much…But I hardly concern about her anyhow… I shift my job on to the older and also I have a little boy. So after I began to care about him very much, I couldn’t take care of the second at all…Anyway up to that point when I heard something bad from the teacher, it awakened me. Since that time, I began to have out-of-school studies for her…..One thing that make me sorry is that I couldn’t spend time with her to teach more at home so that she could be better off ” (excerpt from topic segment 29). Domain 6: Parental Relation in Educational Advantage with Disadvantage This domain includes parental relation in educational advantage and disadvantage for children in multicultural context of America, stemming from different school education systems between two countries.Sample Narratives of Sessions 1 and 12 At the first session when addressing herself as a frustrated, the client stated: “ …..in the United States, the school does teach children much more than the school in Korea and we’ve learned that we needed to teach our children a lot at home as well. But because I couldn’t do that, she couldn’t catch up with others. Furthermore, we are not a typical American family and we are not able to offer any information about things that we had once learned in Korea although we want to do something for the kids. When kids… when other kinds were reading books, my daughter couldn’t do at all. And she didn’t attend the preschool, either ….. (excerpt from topic segments 78 & 79).152153By session 12 when the parents discussing together the issue of immigrant family’s parenting styles including kangaroo, chameleon, and cuckoo, Mrs. Kim responded thoughtfully: “…..I think that if we can bring up the kids at home until they go to college, it seems that it takes a faithful family education. But what if it is not…I don’t think that only bringing up the kids at home wouldn’t be a good way. I am for sure that we should find the way to complement…..I don’t think that chameleon is the good way to bring up the kids because it would be good or bad depending on the family situation…..So we cannot depend on all things outside but the thing we can rely on outside is extra curricular study that offers more professional knowledge than we as parents do …..” (excerpt from topic segments 70 & 71). Theme C: Harmonious Relation The theme, harmonious relation also involves significant family relationship meaning in the Kim family. This theme related to mainly several interrelated coding categories: 1) disentangling in “Han” transformation process, 2) internal dialogue, and 3) self-reflective perspective taking. This harmonious relation theme is divided into three domains: self- disciplined relation (Domain 7) affectionate relation (Domain 8), and synchronous relation (Domain 9). Sample narratives in each domain were presented. More elaborate description is contained in Appendix D.Domain 7: Self-Disciplined Relation This domain includes those characteristic descriptions of how Mrs. Kim experienced self- disciplined relationship with the family. Sample Narratives of Sessions 6 and 12By session 12 when asked to bring the new angle that she could see the child’s inappropriate behavior differently, Mrs. Kim addressed: “ She used to do nothing she supposed to do in the morning and now she tries to do so by herself while I ask her older sister to help our her. She is trying to do on her own…but it meets my expectation. You advised me last time to let 153154 her do things by herself. So I did as you told me. That is important too. And it occurred to me that she could think that it would be all right for her to leave things undone and someone will do it for her. So after I left her alone to do things for several days, I thought that I could not stand it any more and called her out, ‘Clean this like I do’…..while I put her clothes in her closet and arranged her underwear and socks in her drawer belongs, I directed her to do the same way as I did….”(excerpt from topic segment 30). When reviewing and projecting the things that happened and want to happened to the family, Mrs. Kim stated confidently: “Now I think that all the hardest time is over. If my husband and me could make a little bit more of effort…[we will lead a happy family] I think that it would be dependent on two of us who take initiatives to lead our family. Now our children are growing well. The most important thing is now…how two of us can live in harmony and lead the family” (excerpt from topic segment 92). For the narrative examples of session 6, see the previous written example at domain 5 (authoritarian/hierarchical relation with equal/achieved relation). Domain 8: Affectionate Relation (“ Chung”) This domain includes characteristic descriptions about how Mrs. Kim experienced affection, full of “Chung” in the family relationship as a Korea American woman. Sample Narratives of Sessions 6 and 12 During session 6, she stated: “My father wasn’t the same person as the one who didn’t bring money to the family at all when he made it, but he failed a lot when he got started the business and he is very soft-hearted” (excerpt from topic segment 3). During the very beginning of session 6 when characterizing her sense of self-identity with autonomous and devoting self, Mrs. Kim came to enable herself to renew her strenuous efforts which bore fruit in the past lived married life through initiating love, she stated: “ I don’t like to blame anyone. I believe that I have to do what I can do. And I was able to do anything when I did my best. I felt accomplished in the process rather than difficulty. I enjoyed it so much. And it can be applicable to anything, to154155 my children and my husband. And I knew that they got changed very much when I bestowed love on them and did all my best. That was the only thing that really gave me a great feeling of accomplishment so much (excerpt from topic segment 8). “ …..my father-in-law has a stroke and he has no hope in life at all. He said everyday that he has to die…..So last time when I came to Texas, I did massage his foot for him…..I said many times, ‘You should live a healthy life.’ And he was crying whenever he saw me” (excerpt from topic segment 77). “After attending Dr. Whang’s speech, my husband told me, ‘The important way to live healthy life is frequent huge and smile.’ And he came to me and huge this morning when I combed my hairs, saying ‘A-woo!, I should also huge my wife very often’ [with great smile]” (excerpt from topic segment 134). By session 12, a great example was her letter writing and reading during the session: “Dear my real loving mother, Mother! It seems like a very old story, but I think that it was so painful and difficult childhood for me. The most memorable thing...was that when I went out to meet you coming back home from the work at night, you and me fall down together rolling continuously over the steep bank path while I carried you on back of the bicycle. And yet, mother!...I would imagine how I might be different if I would have been born in a very rich family. Although it is told that people need to buy and go through the adversity, I am even so thankful that the hardship was given even against my will. Because by the strength, at present time I live a life with a great will and looking back on the painful days ...looking back on the very ...hard times...I always remember the suffering and I live the present with all my will. Because in those days, it was very impossible for a woman to go out and make money, I remembered that our living was so tough. But I am so much thankful to you, mother. And from my deepest heart, I also appreciate your love that brought up all the siblings well and got married well [in a very calmed voice]” (excerpt from topic segment 4). “When I think the past time back now...I just was feeling so sorry for my mother’s suffering. Because my mother always wasn’t home, there were so many days when me, my sister and brothers had to stay alone and cared maternal grandmother who suffered from a long-standing cough..... Any way .....because of the situation, It seems that I am living with a 155156 great will and making a greater efforts for my children, for my family...... And I can’t allow myself to break down my family again to think about another because I think my family could live their future with the same suffering as I lived with if I do so. Because I don’t want this kind of...this part of life to happen to my children, I might live with a great will” (excerpt from topic segment 15). Domain 9: Synchronous Relation This domain includes how Mrs. Kim stayed in sync with other family members. Sample Narratives of Sessions 6 and 12 At session 6, the client stated: “ I always go to my mom’s room and lie down beside my mom about an hour before sleeping because my little baby sleeps with her [trembling voice]. When my baby goes to bed with my mom, he wants to have both mom and grandma So he is going back and forth between mom’s room and grandma’s. He is at a loss. So I decided to go to my mom’s room and always laying together with him until my baby falls asleep. And also my mom would feel better off” (excerpt from topic segment 67). When addressing the relationship between father and a teenager daughter, she stated: “ I am so sensitive to my husband when I deal with the way that he treated her because she arrives at puberty right now…..but my husband is too insensitive to think that she is sensitive to his behavior.…. But I am so sensitive to that” (excerpt from topic segment 112). By session 12 when her second daughter narrated her story about how she would be like to be a mom for a baby in the future, she stayed in sync with her daughter as follows (T indicates therapist, D2 the second daughter, and M the mother, Mrs. Kim): T: Let’s listen to what Christina wants us to hear.D2: [mummering] Uhmm…T: Are you ready?D2:Read that story? 156157T: Yeah, that story.D2: Oh! Uhmm. I don’t know. I am too shy. M: If I am a mother[smiling gently].D2: If I were a mother. I were…I had a baby and …oh…Good …reading …good learning him. Good exercise…and …oh…M: Teach good listening…D2: And listening andM: Writing…D2: Writing and good.M: Jewel keeperD: Jewel keeper and good…sings and good …singer and that’s all.T: Oh! You write down a lot of things to do.[smiling] How did that come out? How did she write it down like that?M: I told her, ‘If you get married and have a baby, how would you like your baby to do for you’ And she told me that when she grows up later, she wants her baby to do like that and she wrote it down. T: She did it .M: Yes, she did. T: On her own?M: Yeah. Meanwhile she asked me, ‘Mom, how do I write down it?’ [in baby voice] and went to her sister to ask something too. That ‘s how she did. But she didn’t take it here [very proudly].T: Uhmm M: It almost was told. …..” (excerpt from topic segment 23). 157158On another occasion when the first daughter was asked to address the experience with her father and the father wanted to leave the therapy room in tense look, Mrs. Kim stated: “Please sit down. Don’t worry. You need to listen too. Please, don’t worry. Be seated [silently]” (excerpts from topic segments 56 & 58). When searching for the possible way for her husband as an individual family member to be responsible for himself, Mrs. Kim stated: “I think that he would not understand what you ask him to answer right now [very thoughtfully]” (excerpt from topic segment 79). Theme D: Spiritual RelationThe theme of spiritual relation is the most empowering source in the Korean client family. This theme related to mostly several coding categories. Particularly, normal Christian domain related to monologue and single perspective taking. And retribution and spiritual leadership relation related to mind emptying in “Han” transformation process, dialogue and mutual perspective taking. The theme spiritual relation is divided into three domains: normal Christian relation (Domain 10), retribution (“Ob-bo”) (Domain 11), and spiritual leadership relation or mutually fulfilled relation (Domain 12). Sample narratives in each domain were presented. More elaborate descriptions are contained in Appendix D.Domain 10: Normal Christian Relation This domain includes characteristic descriptions of how Mrs. Kim’s internal strength enhanced by living in the spiritual life with her family. Sample Narratives of Sessions 1 and 6 At the very beginning of the first session when she began to recollect her past dilemma in her marriage life, she said: “It was two years later since I married that I got first pregnant and I felt conflict in mind [tears falling in eyes].....At that time, the conflict was beyond imagination really...to have a baby or leaving him .....And while being pregnant I believed God so much. 158159Anyway what happened to me was that I kept on thinking I had to believe God. And [tears falling in eyes]...I was feeling pity for him very much. And I kept thinking of what if this man could marry again when I just leave him; what will happen to him and so I wasn’t able to leave him. And with having a baby. I prayed a lot. Through having a baby, God, please let us not separate each other..…With that way until now I have lived...” (excerpts from topic segments 13 & 19). “Bible tells to discipline children with a whip. That’s not with stiff one but with a flexible whip. The Bible says that we should whip children to discipline”(excerpt from topic segment 63). By session 6, the client stated: “I always told my mother that after she goes to heaven. She deserves a praise by the Lord to think back her life because she did her best at her life . I always comfort her like that” (excerpt from topic segment 29). Domain 11: Retribution (“Ob-bo”) Relation This domain includes characteristic descriptions of retribution (“Ob-bo”) in family relationship. Sample Narrative of Session 6 By session 6 when addressing her heartbroken feeling that she experienced in relation to her mother-in-law in a higher position in the family as she dealt with marital conflict, Mrs. Kim as a first daughter-in-law in a lower position, stated: “If I could make up my mind not to live with my husband , any time I really don’t want to live with him. Frankly speaking, I don’t want to live with him. But I think that it is ‘Ob-bo’ that is given to me….” (excerpt from topic segments 82 & 83). Domain 12: Spiritual Leadership Relation This domain includes characteristic description of how Mrs. Kim experienced mature spiritual leadership both in the immediate family and extended family relationship. Sample Narratives of Sessions 6 and 12 159160At the very last time of the sixth session when therapist asked about addressing new possibilities for different family relationship, Mrs. Kim talked with therapist in the way: “Yes, I am seeking for the possible to the problem in the family. The first possible is ..... In the process, I guess, the most important thing is to believe God with all our heart and the next important thing is to bring the faith in God to the practice in our life. That is the most important thing. That is the most important thing for the husband to stand himself as a father in the family…..” (excerpt from topic segments 124 & 131). When addressing the need for truth Christianity compared with the superficial Christian life that her mother-in-law showed to me, Mrs. Kim stated: “ I wrote a letter to my father-in-law because he completely doesn’t believe God. He has a stroke of paralysis right now…..What I wrote a letter to him is, ‘When as a father, you pray for your son’s blessing to God, the son could receive the blessing from God. If you could pray for your son a lot, He would have a lot of blessing. So please pray for him. And I will also pray for your better health a lot. I wrote this inn truth in my heart but one more thing is that I like to demonstrate my faith in God to my mother-in-law …”(excerpt from topic segments 76, 79, & 80). By session 12 when addressing the way that she wanted happy family relationships to be enhanced more Mrs. Kim stated: “ I have tried hard to practice a life with the love God gives us…In a large that‘s why I could stay married with my husband so far. Although I cannot follow the same way through which God loves us, I try to do my best with a will…to model on His love even only a thousandth or even an infinitesimal part of the God’s love. This is what I thought, what I think, and what I will think. If I would think about how can I as a mother lead my family better, I think that all of us see each other with eyes loved, then we could never yell at other although it is given to hit the kids we need to have our mind made up to hit them with love in mind. Likewise, my daughters, Susan and Christina, they might feel love so much if they would think that their sister is a very special and the only one in the world. I think that it is the most important thing that each family member cherish the love for each other [confidently and firmly]” (excerpt from topic segment 89). . 160161Summary In summary, as Mrs. Kim continued to explore and disclose themes important to her, it became clear that she appeared to experience more of positive human family relationship. Parental Caring Behavior MeaningThis section presents the results of the analysis of parental caring behavior meaning recurred for a core client, Mrs. Kim over sessions 1, 6, and 12. Six major themes evolved and related to the coding categories and reflect specifically the core client’s principles that guided parent’s child rearing practice in relation to the family relationship meaning. Specifically, three major themes of family relationship meanings are involved. Multicultural relation mainly related to familism, collectivism, hierarchism, and education. Harmonious relation and spiritual relation related to compassion and leadership. It is important to note that these themes are closely intertwined with the whole family relationship meaning system as the family relationship meaning played a large part in generating a new meaning about parent-child relation for the core client. As a result, adaptive parental caring behavior meaning emerged as the large part of the family relationship meaning context by enlarging and changing its fixed features of family relationship meaning during the therapy. The sample narratives (direct quotes from the data) along with Table 8 are included during sessions of 1, 6, and 12. Narrative elaboration (detailed descriptions of the direct quotes) in each theme will be found in Appendix D. The six themes are:Theme A: FamilismDomain 1: Child is the extensional part of family system. Domain 2: Family obligation is a solid foundation for child well-being and growth. Domain 3: Parental relation is affected by marital/extended family relations. 161162Theme B: CollectivismDomain 4: Child care is supported by extended family. Domain 5: Family financial aid is supported by extended family. Theme C: HierarchismDomain 6: Parents provide authority.Domain 7: Father is in the absolute family position.Domain 8: The younger sibling should listen to the older sibling.Theme D: EducationDomain 9: Child should be taught.Domain 10: Child should be disciplined harshly.Domain 11: Each child should develop self-responsibility. Theme E: CompassionDomain 12: Parents practice self-discipline.Domain 13: Parents respect and understand child’s developmental/emotional need.Domain 14: Parents share affection together with children. Theme F: LeadershipDomain 15: Parents lead family with willpower individually.Domain 16: Parents share family leadership responsibility together.Domain 17: Parents spiritually lead the family to the love of and faith in God.In general, during session 1, three themes of familism, collectivism, and hierachism were most prevalent while disappearing during sessions 6 and 12 except that the familism still remained the same. On the other hand, at the first session, the themes of education, compassion, and leadership began to evolve while transforming into the different modes to deepen parental caring behavior meaning during sessions 6 and 12. In particular, although those themes still 162163 remained the same as underlying significant themes at session 6, they changed greatly: alternative expansion to include more constructive/positive parental caring behavior meaning. Table 8 shows the summary of the analysis of the themes and domains that emerged throughout session 1, 6, and12. The table 8 shows what meanings underwent decline and increase in the therapy period of time to assess the nature and extent of change in parental caring behavior meaning Table 8: Quality of Change in Mother’s Parental Caring Behavior Meaning Session #: 1 6 12Interview Type: Individual Individual FamilyParental Caring Behavior MeaningFamilism 1/2/3 1/2/3 x/x/3 Collectivism. 4/5 4/5 4/xHierarchism 6/7/8 6/x/x 6/x/8Education 9/10/11 9/x/x 9/x/11 Compassion x/x/x 12/13/14 12/13/14Leadership 15/x/x 15/16/17 15/16/17 ______Note: The numbers are indicative of the presence of the domains in each theme over the sessions of 1, 6, and 12, and x indicative of non-presence of the domain (see the previous page, 7).______Theme A: Familism This theme of familism is divided into three domains: Domain 1(child problem is the extension of family problem), Domain 2 (family obligation is the solid foundation for child well-163164 being and growth), and Domain 3 (parental relation is affected by marital/extended family or parents-in-laws relations).Domain 1: Child problem is the extension of the family problem Sample Narratives of Sessions 1, 6, and 12During session 1 when looking back on her past marital dilemma, the client said: “It was two years later since I married that I got first pregnant and I felt conflict in mind [tears falling in eyes].....At that time, the conflict was beyond imagination really...to have a baby or leaving him .....And while being pregnant I believed God so much. Anyway what happened to me was thatI kept on thinking I had to believe God. And [tears falling in eyes]...I was feeling pity for him very much. And I kept thinking of what if this man could marry again when I just leave him; what will happen to him and so I wasn’t able to leave him. And with having a baby. I prayed a lot, through having a baby, God, please let us not separate each other..…With that way until now I have lived...” (excerpt from topic segments 13 & 19). When therapist asked about her expectation for the first coming in to therapy, she stated: “Actually, when I came here I also was thinking about what help it would be to come here…Because it’s said family counseling, I didn’t think that only because of child, I have to come here. Because I was afraid that it could be family problem behind child problem when child was beaten to this point. And so I…I think…in fact, my family has a problem…..” (excerpt from topic segments 90 & 91). Domain 2: Family obligation is the solid foundation for child well-being and growth.Sample Narratives of Sessions 6 At session 6, Mrs. Kim stated: “…..Because my father lived as he pleased and didn’t take care of the family, it seems that the child is like the final victim of the lack of taking care of family…..”(excerpt from topic segment 3). “…..There were so many days when my sister, my brother and I 164165 had to stay home alone and cared for grandma who was so sick because my mother always wasn’t home…..When I recollect the memory of those days, I could not allow myself to break down my family again because my family could live the same life that I lived with if I let it be…..It is not my case that some one can rescue me from the suffering. My aunt wasn’t rich enough to take car of me…..In such a situation I didn’t have anyone to whom I would completely rely upon. Well, in the situation I had many memories of hungry from which I suffered so much.. Because I didn’t want to give my children the same suffering from hungry…..Because I knew the suffering from hungry deeply, it seems like that I am living in my best doing” (excerpt from topic segments 15, 16, & 17) Domain 3: Parental relation is affected by marital/extended family relations. Sample Narratives of Sessions 1, 6, and 12By session 6 when addressing the issue of child rearing, she stated: “My theory is that if I would raise children well, first it takes couple to be in order. The significant thing for being a mother puts the harmonious couple relationship first. Another factor that impacts the couple relation is the extended family…..Sometimes, I thought I really want to live with my husband, but whenever my mother-in-law spoke, I just wondered why I am here…… If I don’t hear anything from her I would do make my family happier…After hearing I began to hate my husband…..I became so nervous…..” (excerpts from topic segments 93, 94, & 97). SummaryIn summary, the domain 1(Child is the extension or part of the family) appeared to have stayed still while the domain 2 and 3 appeared to have weakened. All these changes indicated that in the therapy there was the significant erosion of familism in the Korean client immigrant family. 165166Theme B: Collectivism The theme of collectivism includes characteristic description of how Mrs. Kim made use of her family resources available to maintain her parental caring behavior. This theme is divided into two domains: 1) Child care is supported by extended family; and 2) Family financial aids are supported from the extended family. Domain 4: Needy child care is provided by extended family.Sample Narratives of Sessions 1, 6, and 12During session 1 when recollecting her past married life with in-laws, Mrs. Kim stated: “…..I was very difficult. I was not able to keep the store with my husband but I couldn’t do my self alone. And my child already grew up and was around two years old. My mother-in-law was taking care of my baby because we lived together with her” (excerpt from topic segment 25). “ Now I have a little baby, just six months old. It is a boy. No one can take care of him so that I asked my mother to come here promptly. So she came from Korea. …..When I just opened the store, I just asked her help because I could not get a rest even a day after opening the store... [smiling] I was not able to leave all of three children to my husband and housework too. My husband is not capable to do so...” (excerpt from topic segment 90).By session 6, Mrs. Kim stated: “I always go to my mom’s room and lie down beside my mom about an hour before sleeping because my little baby sleeps with her [trembling voice]. When my baby goes to bed with my mom, he wants to have both mom and grandma So he is going back and forth between mom’s room and grandma’s” (excerpt from topic segment 67).By session 12, the client stated “…..For my mom didn’t listen what Christina said now. For what she usually thinks of Christina is that Christina would do something without thinking. So I will tell my mother today about this story…She would be more surprised at hearing about this than me…..” (excerpt from topic segment 31). 166167Domain 5: Family financial aids are provided by the extended family. Sample Narratives of Sessions 1, 6, and 12 For the example, see the previous written examples of topic segments 11, 65 and 66 in the domain 4: collective help with self-help. Theme C: Hierachism Hierachism theme characterized the description about how Mrs. Kim made sense of her parental caring behavior through power distance between parent and child. A qualitative elaboration is included.Domain 6: Parents practice the authority over children.Sample Narratives of Sessions 1, 6, and 12For example, see the previous written examples of topic segments 11 to 11 and 62 and 63 in the domain 5: authoritative/hierarchical relation with equal/achieved relation in the family relationship meaning. Domain 7: Father is in the absolute family position.Sample Narratives of Sessions 1, 6, and 12For the examples, see the previous written examples of topic segments of 63, 117 and 118, and122 and 123 in the domain 5: authoritative/hierarchical relation with equal/achieved relation in the family relationship meaning. Domain 8: The younger sibling should listen to the older sibling.Sample Narratives of Sessions 1, 6, and 12For instances, see the previous written example of topic segment 29 in the domain 5: authoritative/hierarchical relation with equal/achieved relation in the family relationship meaning.167168Theme D: Education The theme of education characterized the description of education as a significant meaning of parental caring behavior. Domain 9: Child should be taught.Sample Narratives of Sessions 1, 6, and 12For examples, see the previous written example of topic segments 29 and 117 and 118 in the domain 5: authoritative/hierarchical relation with equal/achieved relation in the family relationship meaning. In addition, the examples include the previous written examples of topic segments in domain 6: parental relation in educational advantage with disadvantage in the family relationship meaning. Domain 10: Child should be disciplined harshly.Sample Narratives of Sessions 1 and 12For the examples of session 1, see the previous written examples of topic segments of 11 and 18, and 62 and 63 in the domain 5: authoritative/hierarchical relation with equal/achieved relation in the family relationship meaning.By session 12 when she addressed her child hood adversity, she stated: “…..I think that people need to buy and go through adversity at early ages…...” (excerpt from topic segment 4). “…..What I concern is…that my children live so comfortably right now so that they might not have the same feeling with the hardship in their lives that I have lived with me….” (excerpt from topic segment 17). Domain 11: Each child should enhance self-responsibility.Sample Narratives of Sessions 1, 6, and 12 168169For the examples, see the previous written examples of topic segments of 30 in the domain 7: self-discipline relation in the theme of harmonious relation. On another occasion during the moment when asked about what happened to the family regarding child beating, Mrs. Kim stated,“…..Christina relies on someone else so much …..Although it was all right for Christina as she was very young. But now she is a grown-up and it ought not to be allowed any more. She lacks a sense of responsibility…..” (excerpt from the topic segment 61). Summary In summary, in this theme, domain 9 appeared to have no change at all while domain 10 underwent a significant decline by the sessions 6 and 12. As a result, there was a significant reduction in power distance the client family. Theme E: Compassion The theme of compassion characterized the description of compassion to restore the harmony and affection in the broken relationship between herself (as a parent) and child in the family. Domain 12: Parents practice self-disciplineSample Narratives of Sessions 6 and 12At the last part of the first session when asked about the expectation of family therapy, Mrs. Kim responded with caution: “ I think…in fact my family has the problem…..But although I know the problem is there. I tried to control myself so much up to now. Well I know very well the impact of the hot temperament of my husband on all the family. I know but I just tried to control and my husband did so too” (excerpt from topic segment 92).By session 6 during the time when she began to explore the issue of changing marital relation in terms of financial management, Mrs. Kim said: “ I think that I should speak gently to 169170 my husband when I said that he shouldn’t do the way that he brought Pizza whenever he came to the teacher who taught his daughter “ (excerpt from the segment 102). On another occasion of changing marital relation in terms of becoming a better parent, she said: “And there is one thing that my mother is concerned about me. What is about is that when I get mad, I tend to shouting at my husband whether before my children or not...... And my mother always told me that you should not shout at your husband in front of children” (excerpt from the segment 122). Domain 13: Parents respect and understand child’s needs.Sample Narratives of Sessions 6 and 12For the examples of session 6, see the previous written examples of topic segment 112 at the session 6 in Domain 9: synchronous relation in the theme of harmonious relation. In addition, she stated her awareness of child’s emotional/developmental need: “When my son sleeps with his maternal grandma, he seems like to want both his mother (her room) and his grandma (her mother’s room) with him and he keeps back and forth between his mother’s room and grandma’s. He is at a loss. So I always go to grandma’s room and we are lying down together until he falls in sleep” (excerpt from topic segment 67). Addressing excessive authority exercised by her husband toward their children, Mrs. Kim stated: “ When my husband was nervous to the children, when he was yelling at the children, I told him that because you father was so nervous to you, your father forced you to do something impossible by yelling at you when you was young, you are in trouble mentally, Aren’t you? When I asked him like that, he didn’t answer at all” (excerpt from topic segment 136). For the examples of session 12, see the previous written examples of topic segment 23 at the session 12 in domain 9: synchronous relation in the theme of harmonious relation. Domain 14: Parents share affection together with children.170171Sample Narratives of Sessions 1, 6, and 12For example, see the previous written example of topic segment 67 in domain 9: synchronous relation in the theme of harmonious relation during session 6. Another occasion during session 12, Mrs. Kim appeared to be capable to carry out a relatively both firm and smooth attitude toward her daughters and her husband during therapy. Therapist could hear the excitement in her voice. Then Christina became in her mother’s eyes as one who found love and peace. And there was a joy in her heart that she hadn’t known for a long time. Theme F: Leadership The theme of leadership characterized the description of the client’s process of taking a leadership position in the child caring in the family relationship. Domain 15: Parents lead the family with willpower individually.Sample Narratives of Sessions 1, 6, and 12During session 1 when addressing child protective service investigation process she involved, Mrs. Kim stated:“ ….It seemed that the investigator came to my house to see my family situation and she decided it wasn’t the case of child abuse. And she called me and said, ‘Don’t worry about the report made by the school principle regarding child abuse.’ …..So I said, ‘I am not such a bad person who abuses child…hasn’t even mind to abuse child.’ I am also a person who live my life with willpower…” (excerpt from topic segment 73). Inviting her husband to therapy by taking initiative for family leadership, she stated: “….. I am going to speak of him, like this ‘how can we make our family better? I would say that way… as I am shy. Otherwise within few days when I can put my mind to write a letter to him, I will do so…” (excerpt from topic segment 140). When therapist asked the permission of information release from school, she signed a confidential information release form with great pleasure in making connection with school and of therapist’s mediation between school and herself for her child by stating: “…..It’s 171172 very good to me. It’s so good to me…..It’s good to have a chance to know about something happened in school that I don’t know…..” (excerpt from topic segment 142). By session 12 when recollecting her child hood hardship, she stated:“…..Looking back on the hardship in my child hood…because of that, I do my best, because of that, it seems that I am trying to make a great effort to live more for my children, live for my family” (excerpt from topic segment 15). “…..Because I know completely what the suffer from the hungry would be like to me[trembling voice], it seems to me that I really live my life with willpower…” (excerpt from topic segment 17) Domain 16: Parents share the family leadership responsibility together.Sample Narratives of Sessions 6 and 12At session 6 when addressing the issue of couple’s collaboration dealing with financial management, Mrs. Kim stated: “I explained to his satisfaction. You cannot spend money like this way and I also didn’t buy any cloth for myself at all for a year. You have nothing to be ashamed of being dressed. So let’s focus our efforts on making money and let’s spend money for the children because they are growing up…..”(excerpt from topic segment 107). For the examples of session 12, see the previous written example of topic segment 92 in the domain 7, self-disciplined relation in the theme of harmonious relation. Domain 17: Parents spiritually lead the family with the faith in and love of GodSample Narratives of Sessions 6 and 12 For examples, see the previous written examples of topic segments 124 and 131 during session 6, and segments 89 during session 12 in domain 12 of theme 4, spiritual relation in the family relationship meaning. 172173SummaryIn summary, six themes (17 domains) of parental caring behavior meaning for Mrs. Kim included familism, collectivism, hierarchism, education, compassion and leadership. The theme of familism emphasizes the parental perspective and experience of child as extension of family as a basic unit of parental caring behavior. The collectivism theme emphasizes kinship family helping as resources available for parental caring behavior. The theme of hierarchism emphasizes power distance between parent and child as a way of parenting child. Education theme emphasizes the significance of child-discipline and family education as the basis of being and becoming a better parent. Compassion theme emphasizes the achievement of harmony and affection as a meaningful parental caring behavior. The theme of leadership emphasizes mindful connection between personal spiritual cultivation and responsibility to rectify family through the spirit-guided transformation of family crisis. The above discussion leads to the conclusion that the client underwent major changes in three themes during therapy: There was a large drop in familism, collectivism, and hierarchism. The drop in these themes of course means a surge in compassion and leadership. There is also indications that in the theme of education, harsh punishment style dropped off as the rest of the domains remained the same. 173174Parent Coercive (Child Aversive) Behavior Change This section presents the results of the analysis of parent (mother) coercive (child aversive) behavior change over the sessions 1, 6, and 12. The understanding the significance of parent coercive (child aversive) behavior change is essential in order to understand the positive relationship between parent and child related to the core issue of physical child abuse in this study. Six major themes include: (Theme 1) Corporal punishment, (Theme 2) Threat, (Theme 3) Disapproval, (Theme 4) Negative demand (Theme 5) Repeated command, (Theme 6) Paralyzed affection. Table 7 shows the summary of the results of the analysis of quality of change in mother’s coercive (daughter’s aversive) behavior throughout the sessions 1, 6, and 12. The reason for including child’s aversive behavior is that child may influence parental behavioral patterns as much as she was influenced by her parent. The sample narratives (direct quotes from the data) are presented. The narrative elaboration (detailed descriptions of direct quotes) in each theme is found in Appendix D.174175Table 7: Quality of Change in Mother’s Coercive (Daughter’s Aversive) BehaviorAbusive Behavior/ Session 1 6 12 Magnitude of Change Corporal punishment ***(***) **(***) @(@) High Harshly; Slightly; Not self-controlled Sometimes; Self- controlled Threat ***(***) @(@) *(*) ModerateHigh I already told her that I noticed her to hit I will hit, then it happened. but it doesn’t happen. Disapproval ***(***) **(**) @ (@) High She never listen. She fools around. Now she listens to me She lacks a sense of foremost. responsibility.Negative demand ***(***) @(@) *(*) ModerateHigh She didn’t do She did something anything at all. but not completely.Repeated commands *** (***) @(@) @ (@) High I counted three. There is no special wrongdoing for her now. 175176Paralyzed affection ***(***) **(**) @(@) High She is never afraid She is afraid of Full of affection: getting a beating. getting a beating. smiling; emphatic ______Note: Quality of Mother Coercive( Daughter Aversive) Behavior *** High ** Moderate * Low @ None176177Theme 1: Corporal PunishmentWhen the client mother practiced child discipline in the family, she very often used the physical punishment. As seen in the Table 7, this theme evolved throughout the sessions 1, and 6 but the quality of physical punishment changed from harsh to slight. And by the last session 12, there was no indication of this behavior for the client. Sample Narratives of Sessions of 1 and 6 During the first session when addressing the issue of child beating, Mrs. Kim stated, “On the same day...I hit Christina (the second daughter)...in the morning. Because she had to get ready to go school and we were running out of time. And yet I couldn’t keep doing this thing for her. Although I could do so, I just couldn’t keep doing that because I just thought that keeping doing this thing for her because of this and that doesn’t seem right. So I beat her because of that.... For both cases it was in the morning” (excerpt from topic segment 66). By the session 6, the client stated, “…..I sometimes hit Christina in the head slightly, but I really don’t like to hit the child according to the parent’s temper. I also hate to hit child in front of people in public place.” (excerpt from topic segment 17).Theme 2: Threats The parent client’s coercive behavior include threat to and/or negative demand toward the child when she found herself that her initial verbal statement was not effective to training the child. It appeared to be high use during the fist session and ended up with low by session 12 (see the Table 7). Sample Narratives of Sessions 1 and 12 During the first session when asked about what happened to the family regarding child beating, she stated, “…..As I was training her to do by herself…I hit her…When the child does not follow the direction, Korean people beat the children…to make them “scared” of physical 177178 punishment. Like, like this, ‘If you don’t do this by the time I count three I will beat you.’ We talk this way. Then she didn’t do what was told by, then I hit her as I said that I was going to beat you. Then I hit her because she didn’t do that…..It wasn’t the way American people though about.” (excerpt from topic segment 62). By session 12 Mrs. Kim stated, “…..I taught her about how to do something and prepared her for school….Christina just put her book case down and went upstairs. She did that next day again. So I told her ‘I certainly told you to do that but you didn’t. So when I come back home, if you don’t do that, I am going to hit you…In fact, like that I did force her half way and then her room became clean ”(excerpt from topic segment 35).Theme 3: DisapprovalThe theme of disapproval also evolved when the mother client experienced frustration and anger at her child as she involved child’s every day life situation in the family. Sample Narrative of Sessions 1 and 6During the first session, the client stated, “ …..Christina (the second daughter) is much more like her father in character and so relies on some one else very much. And her older sister (Susan) is more like me in character and takes care of her sister very well…..Christina lacks a sense of responsibility…..” (excerpt from topic segment 61).By session 6, Mrs. Kim said, “ …..Christina still even fools around…..” (excerpt from topic segment 17).Theme 4: Negative DemandsParent relied on negative demands or expectations when she managed the child’s misbehavior (e.g., not cleansing the body, not brushing teeth, not arranging own clothes and stuffs). 178179Sample Narratives of Sessions 1 For example, during the fist session, the mother client stated, “…..In the morning when she goes to school, she must brush her teeth by herself, she should try to do that at least, but she stands there doing nothing at all” (excerpt from topic segment 61). During the session 12, when discussing the management of child discipline, Mrs. Kim stated, “ When she came back home from school, Christina seemed that she just put her school bag outside and went to T.V. room. Although I couldn’t see that, my mother told me so”( excerpt from topic segment 35). Theme 5: Repeated CommandsWhen the parent client failed to direct her child, she also underwent repeated commands to change inappropriate behavior. Mrs. Kim repeated her commend in order to direct her child’s inappropriate behavior. Sample Narratives of Session 1 and 12 For example, see the previous written example of topic segment 62 in the theme of threats. In addition, see the previous written example of topic segment 30 in Domain 7 of self-disciplined relation in harmonious relation theme. By session 12, Mrs. Kim stated, “…..In the morning I stayed home more and arranged the pants and socks for Christina because that were disordered. And I told her, ‘The cloths that were taken out, certainly need to be into a washtub but that were here. Put this into over there.’ And I praised her, ‘You did good.’ After that, I didn’t find out any thing special” (excerpt from topic segment 36). 179180Theme 6: Paralyzed AffectionWhen the client mother suffered herself from paralyzed affection in the family relationship, she often also paralyzed her caring behavior toward the child. Mrs. Kim was not in the situation to give affection to the child who was in need for genuine care and attention. Sample Narratives of Session 1 and 6 At session 1, see the previous written examples of topic segments 62, 63, and 71 in violent relation domain in entangled relation theme. In addition, the client stated, “Christina (the second daughter) never be afraid of getting a beating” (excerpt from topic segment 64). “Her older sister helped out her well and Christina became so lazy. So I hit her…..I hit her two times in the morning and so she went to school in cries….” (excerpts from topic segments 66 and 67). During session 6, “Christina also is afraid of getting a beating…...” (excerpt from topic segment 17). Summary In summary, the changes noted during the sessions of 1, 6, and 12. This study suggests that in general that parent cohesive behavior (child aversive behavior) changed along the following directions: Weakening of corporal punishment, punitive statement, disapproval, negative demand, repeated commands, and weakening of paralyzed affection, and emergence of full of affection. This changes indicate a decrease in mother’s coercive (daughter’s aversive) behavior over the therapy. The mother client learned to make use of positive affect (e.g., praise, support, and positive physical touching). SummaryIn summary, this section presented the results of the thematic analysis over the sessions 1, 6, and 12. For the presentation of the evidence for shift in themes associated with family relationship meaning, parental caring behavior meaning, and parent cohesive (child aversive) 180181 behavior, the changes noted over the sessions1, 6, and 12 suggest that the changes occurred along the following directions: With regard to emerging family relationship meanings, the client made a progress from positive change in family relationship meaning from negative affect (entangled relation) affect (e.g., praise, support, and positive physical touching) through multiple identity (multicultural relations) to more positive family relationship (harmonious relation and spiritual relation).In respect with caring behavior meaning, there was a large drop in familism, collectivism, and hierarchism. The drop in these themes means a surge in compassion and leadership. There is also indications that in the theme of education, harsh punishment style dropped off as the rest of the domains remained the same. Parent coercive (child aversive) behavior appeared to make a progress in decrease in negative behavior ( physical punishment and threats) and ineffective parental discipline (negative demands, disapproval, repeated demands, and negative affect (paralyzed affection). The mother client learned to make use of positive affect (e.g., praise, support, and positive physical touching).As a result, it was clear that she shifted her parental behavior from the result that negatively occurred using coercive actions including verbal and non-verbal, to the result that she demonstrated to teach her child what logically follows when the child violated family rules or needs of a situation. Specifically, Mrs. Kim changed the following direction: Her tone of voice contained more firm, but calm, without anger, hostility, and threat; her goal focused more on teaching responsible behavior rather than focus on teaching blind obedience; and her connection is more logical results of the child’s misbehavior rather than not related to the misbehavior itself. Finally, as Mrs. Km’s faithful and patient love was portrayed in her stories more strongly and often, her coercive behaviors (physical punishment, threat, disapproval, repeated command, and paralyzed affection) dropped along with the decrease in child’s aversive behavior as well. 181182Cultural Significance of Korean "Han" Transformation ProcessesRecapitulation of “Han” ConceptThis section presents Korean "Han" transformation processes which addresses culturally relevant coding categories. This finding is considered a natural consequence of a case study and adds to an integrative way of balancing the Western dialogical and an indigenous Korean "Han" perspective altogether. As a result, this coding process may contribute to maximizing the manifestation of the client's own voices and stories while minimizing the risk to the bias from a point of view of predominant cultural meaning and interpretation on the data analysis. Although the exact translation and interpretation of the meaning of “Han” into the word in English is not easy, it denotes the long-held entangled emotions of suffering that are developed over the time by tragic life events and situations. “Han” is an indigenous form of lamentation. It reflects a deep intrapsychic process associated with interaction with external historical-social environment. For that reason, “han” involves a very complex and comprehensive mental processes and it has a transforming power that has not yet been recognized in the Western culture. The four transformation stages that were employed in this study are: The first stage of fermenting or “Sak- hee-gi”; the second of reflecting or “Neuk-deul-li”; the third stage of disentangling or “Han-pul- li”; and the last stage of mind-emptying or “Ma-eum-bi-eun-da”. According to Choi (1994), the concept of Han is another example of Shim-jung pyschology as an indigenous Korean perspective. Shim-jung psychology is used as an interpersonal schemata to promote positive interpersonal relationships, to provide empathy and sympathy to another person and to resolve interpersonal conflicts. In general, shim-jung episodes attempt to affirm the feelings of oneness and wooriness (“we-ness”) in interpersonal relations. Shin-jung episodes are not cognitive communications propagated through the verbal medium, but they are mind to mind (i.e., shim to shim) communication in which emotional feelings are used as the medium (e.g., chong, “affection”). Choi and Kim (1995) have developed a conceptual framework to analyze “Han” episodes which involve five different stages: the reactive phase, internalization phase, 182183 transformation phase, reflective phase, and transcendental phase. But for this analysis, the first stage was not included for it was extraneous for the core client, mother. Case Analysis From Korean “Han” Cultural PerspectiveMrs. Kim, as a Korean-born adult client, showed the four levels of “Han” transformation experience through the dialogical processes during therapy. In Mrs. Kim’s case, these processes represented a version of Korean's shared cultural-social-historical reality. “Han” transformation processes encompassed the shifting from fermenting one's entangled emotions of suffering through the stages of reflecting and disentangling to the transforming in emptying one's mind. In the analysis of the first stage experience of fermenting, Mrs. Kim realized her multiple helpless predicaments. The complex tragic events and situations of her story were as follows. She was born and lived in poverty, suffering from her deprived existence and lacking opportunities and enjoyment in her early days. She also made irrevocable mistake that led her life to tragic consequences. In a way, her decision to get married without knowing much more about her husband’s background was to escape from adversity. Later she felt betrayed and was not able to turn back the clock of time and to rectify the situation. It was her husband’s mental illness that acted as a devastating turning point in her marital life. Moreover, as a daughter-in-law and wife, she was powerless to confront a an authoritarian parents in-law and her husband. Being exploited, she was not able to direct her anger, frustration, and vengeance toward her oppressors for fear of being further suppressed. As she was powerless to change her situation, she had to accept her fate and lived with it. Experiences of tragic events and situations provoked raw emotions of anger, fury, frustration, vengeance, and outrage. She was culturally asked to ferment these raw emotions and transformed them into socially acceptable emotions. She fatally accepted her tragic situation. And her raw emotions of hatred or "Won" were transformed into pity or self- pity, suffering, affliction, loneliness, passive experience (such as helplessness and hopelessness), self-reproaching tendency, and grief. 183184In analysis of the second phase, reflecting, Mrs. Kim was able to transform the raw emotions of personal tragedy to socially and culturally acceptable forms. She accepted her tragic fate while, on the other hand, she refused to accept the cruel fact that she alone must bear the burden of the tragedy. One way Mrs. Kim was trying to get out of this contradiction was to find a release from her own predicament. One way of dealing with “Han” on the individual level, she tried to reflect upon her “Han” experiences and was able to develop a detached view, known as “neuk-deul-li”. She also tried to deal with “Han” through passive acceptance of fate, known as “seung-hwa” which is originated from Buddhism. In a way, she became to calm down and less crying over laughing and smiling. Third stage, disentangling was seen as a way of releasing her “entangled emotions as it took place in the socially and collectively fulfillment. Examples included: reflective listening to music, writing and reading letters, and collective family dialogue (which occurred during the session 12) which were absent before in their home life. Through all these episodes, she was able to distance herself from her own self, as well as, from her own tragedy (this is known as “Han- pul-li”). As “Han” emotions were released, a light-headed queasiness emerged for Mrs. Kim. At this stage, the personal “Han” became public, communicated, shared, and accepted. All of the family members including her husband and two daughters were able to empathize, and they began to realize a shared common fates as they appeared to bond together in full of affection or “Chong”. Mrs. Kim had companions who could provide consolation and enhance her self- dignity. As a result, suffering and grief were now turned into excitement and exaltation or “shin- pa-ram”. In this context, “Han-pul-li” was a celebration of her tragedy. Even in the fate of her tragedy, Mrs. Kim, as a Korean, showed a lasting optimism. This could be regarded as the power and beauty of “Han”.In the last, fourth stage of mind-emptying showed a leap from the reflecting phase. Due to her multiple construction of religious activities cultivated in her life, Mrs. Kim reached the highest pinnacle of self-development within Buddhism and Christian framework. The mind-184185 emptying at this stage is closed tied with enlightenment, the philosophy of Buddhism. For example, she realized that life is pain and suffering during session 12 when reflected upon her painful childhood experience in her family of origin and projected it into her children’s future life. The mind-emptying also took place in love of Christian spirituality. The supreme law of divine Love now governed her entire life and everything within it. For instance, during sessions 6 and, particularly in 12, when she clearly understood and consciously affirmed that this law was always in operation, she experienced the omnipotent power of God, the very expression of divine Love in her life. In this spiritual knowing about her relation to divine love and in exercising of God-ordained freedom from evil thought and behavior, she became more confident of healing any discordant condition and in triumph over the bitterness of hatred, distrust, unbelief, and grief in her lived relationships with husband, children, parents, and parents-in-law. Table 10 contains the four levels of “Han” transforming processes at sessions of 1, 6, and 12. Sample descriptive narratives are presented in this section. More detailed narrative elaboration of each comparing stages are found in Appendix D. 185186Table 10: Quality of Mother’s “Han” Transformation Processes Session 1 6 12(Interview Type) (Individual) (Individual) (Family) Han Transformation LevelFermenting ("Sak-hee-gi") 54 (53.0) 0 (00.0) 0 (00.0) Reflecting ("Neuk-deul-li") 53 (52.0) 18 (12.4) 0 (00.0) Disentangling ("Han-pul-li") 3 (03.0) 81 (55.9) 74 (72.5) Mind-Emptying ( "Ma-eum-bi-eun-da") 0 (00.0) 9 (06.2) 21 (20.6) Not Applicable 2 (03.0) 37 (25.5) 7 ( 06.9) Total Segments (%) 102 (100) 145 (100) 102 (100) Note: Not applicable refers to mother's descriptions and explanations that are not directly related to tragic events and situations such four categories as tragic event, deprivation, exploitation, and mistake in her life.The First Stage of Fermenting or "Sak-hee-gi" Since the very beginning of the therapeutic conversation in the first session, Mrs. Kim mostly involved fermenting (Sak-hee-gi) along with reflecting on it. But the other following sessions, 6 and 12 did not provide the further data on the fermenting at all (see the Table 10). So the following data present only the evidence on fermenting entangled emotions of suffering life, "Sak-hee-gi" and its elaboration appeared during session 1. In the study, fermenting was coded when the client involved internalizing the tragic suffering experiences significant to her lived life that related to four categories of live events and situations: unjust deprivation (poverty and lack of the opportunity for success), tragic life-event (the accidental death of her younger brother), the personal failures that were beyond her control (failure at knowledge about mental illness and job situation related to husband and at handling consequent marital conflict), and structural discrimination (such as class and sex discrimination) or exploitation with low status position in the family as a first daughter-in-law and wife. 186187Sample Narratives From Session 1At first, in a little murmuring manner at session 1, Mrs. Kim initiated fermenting by evaluating both unjust deprivation and a tragic event in her life as follows. “In fact, I...came here today because of family problem...uhm...there is no special problem as I see. Uhm...my husband is ...I got married.... I would like to begin with telling you about the marriage. I got married in Korea...When I was young...my situation was ... Before marriage...my family was ...so difficult financially. And I grew old enough to get married...uh...and in such a situation, my younger brother died in a car accident [voice change to lower tone] In the very difficult… situation...[silence]. He died in a car accident. He died...and I was in a very difficult situation; quit my job... As I grew older, people around me often asked me to get married and I met a man who came from America” (excerpts from topic segments 2 and 3). Next, realizing personal failure at knowing more about husband's mental problem and job situation, Mrs. Kim evaluated the personal mistake that acted as a devastating turning point in her life in the way: "I got married with him...but I haven’t thought of him as strange because there was no one around me like the kind of people who is hot-tempered, impatient, and was too anxious” (excerpt from topic segment 6). “…..Because I grown up in Choong-joo (name of a village at rural area in the south west site of Seoul, Korea), I was very innocent and didn't know about men and how to relate to…..” (excerpt from topic segment 8). On another occasion when asked about her intention or motivation of marriage, Mrs. Kim evaluated her negative feelings hurt and remorse from betrayal from in-laws: “Well, I, I, uhu... when I decided to marry him, I never decided that because I liked him. And they were lying to me. How they were lying...I mean husband's family members. All the sisters-in-laws and parents-in-laws who were in America at that time had sent letters....Well, during the time when he was with me in Korea. During a week he was in Korea, all of them wrote letters…..From America, the parents-in-law wrote a letter to me. They said in the letters that husband had been working in America. So I believed that he had had a job….Well... dental...a dental technician, you know……Well, they said that way so that 187188 while being in Korea, I just trusted and thought that he might have been O.K. By the way, although in Korea he seemed like to be very anxious, I never imagined that he had such a disease....” (excerpt from topic segment 29). Evaluating personal failure at handling marital conflict, Mrs. Kim began to tear up and evaluated a deep root of personal suffering in life as follows. “C: (Beginning of topic segment 13) After that...uh, after the two years passed ...I became pregnant...became pregnant. Well, during the time...T: Was that your first pregnancy?C: I had the first pregnancy… And then I felt conflict in my mind. Now I forgot all about that and I couldn't tell all the story in detail [first beginning tearing out] T: [giving tissues from a tissue box to the client beside her] Yeah...C: [cleans falling tears]... Well, anyway..., At that time I couldn't have imagined the conflict in my mind. Really... T: You mean that you had to be pregnant?C: I was wondering whether I had to be pregnant....T: Or you had to have a baby? or you had to stop living with ?...C: [simultaneously] Or I had to have a baby or I had to stop living with him and separated from..T: Uha!.C: Anyway, at that time, I was struggling deeply in my mind.T: Uhmm. C: (Beginning of topic segment 19) Then he had taken the medication 7 mg....T: Yeah.C: I didn't remember even the name of the medication he took.T: Remember...188189C: I even don't like to remember...T: Ahu!.C: (beginning of topic segment 20) Now, he takes 1 mg. Now... T: 1 mg?C: 1 mg. T: Uhu, Ah!.C: Now he takes 1 mg....[pause] (beginning of topic segment 21) You know, now what sort of people is my husband? He is a very, very hot-tempered...how can I say, because he is very unstable he is always anxious.T: Uhu.C: And if something happened, then that should be done immediately. Immediately that should be done...But who can do that ? I am not even the competent who can do that way... T: For example, what would be the case that you need to do immediately? C: I mean well... T: As a wife what you need to do immediately?...C: As a wife immediately...That is why I had to always have lived in oppress. I mean that I had to have tolerated his any irritation all the time”. On another occasion after almost completing the evaluation of her past suffering in marital relationship, she also further evaluating present marital conflict, by saying: " Now he trusts me but it is a problem for him to depend on me too much. And I had made him in the sense that I have raised like a cub to be a tiger who kill his owner. In the past, I had been very strong and I had fight physically against him. For when he got suddenly crazy I had no choice except that way" (excerpt from topic segment 98). 189190Finally, for the example of the structural discrimination, she stated: “And also my father-in-law ....hasn't allowed me to touch the money in the store. So did my husband, too. Because he had lacked his self-confidence, he distrusted me....I mean. Then... My father in-law, my, my, husband. And so he hadn't allowed me to touch the a cashier... He doubted me. Not allowed me to touch the cash box. But he hadn't done it directly, but ....I mean he had done so indirectly. Anyway.... I don't know all the things very well... As I see now ... my father-in-law had doubted me so much. In terms of money, anyway… nevertheless, during the very hard time, I passed through well moment by moment. And also my mother-in-law took me to church at her will. Although I didn't like to go to church, I had to go there in any circumstances. Now as I look back, my mother-in-law had paid attention to me so much because she thought that I was still young and beautiful. And so did my father-in-law, too. They didn't take care of me. Instead they gave me hard time so much… So "harshly" [strongly voicing]. I mean that well, well, how can I say...If I would have been very shred like a Seoul woman, I might have done something differently. But I was not that kind of character. I mean when my mother-in-law had asked me to do something, then I had thought it as it was so and like a fool I always had lived a life in oppression” (excerpts from topic segments 14 & 15).The Second Stage of Reflecting or “Neuk-deul-li" The second stage is reflecting, mainly personally. This was coded when the client spoke in behalf of her paralyzed mind or spirit in several ways: protested against the fate; refused to accept the cruel fact that she alone must bear the burden of her tragedy; transformed the emotional venom of “Won” (grudge) into detached tears of “Han” by expressing both cry and smile/laugher; and developed individually detached view of self and life. This reflecting, "Neuk-deul-li" mostly took place during sessions both 1 and 6. But by session 6, she appeared to make a move toward further stages such as disentangling mainly and 190191 beginning mind emptying (see the Table 10). Sample narratives are presented and elaborate descriptions are included and will be found in Appendix D. Sample Narratives of Sessions 1 and 6At session 1, she began to protest against the fate by saying: “Because my life was so much difficult, I wanted to escape from the situation. Because it was so hard for my family to make a living… Situation. So to speak, I wanted to get away from the situation… from my family's poor economic condition” (excerpt from topic segment 4). She also continued to state: "At that time, my mother-in-law...might have thought that I couldn't have lived a long life with her son and both she... and all the other family members had treated me very harshly. So while living with in-laws, I was keeping searching for a chance many time [to run away] at the beginning of the marriage..." (excerpt from topic segment 8). Next, she refused to accept the cruel fact that she alone must bear the burden of her tragedy. During session 1 when reflecting her difficult relationship with husband, she said: “I couldn’t put up with him…[husband]…and also I couldn’t live with mother-in-law together any more because she even didn’t support emotionally as her son made me so difficult in maintaining marriage. Now as I think back, she was so smart that she treated me so harshly” (excerpt from topic segment 26). By session 6 when addressing her strong sense of self-responsibility and hard working style, she stated: “ I guess the motivation came form my childhood in the course of growing up. I saw the hardship of my mom while she was young and lived with my father. What to say…shock? …..Because my father lived as he pleased and didn’t take care of the family, the children became the final victim of the consequence. Of course so was the mom but it was different. She was a mother at all. When parents don’t really accomplish the duty as parents…the children suffer…. I felt it from my childhood…..”(excerpt from topic segments 2 and 3). Then, Mrs. Kim transformed the emotional venom of “Won” (grudge) into detached tears of “Han” with both cries and laughs. During session 1, she expressed: “…..[smiling] A-i-191192 go-cham! [lamenting sound in laugh]. Yeah. And so ... anyway, my husband did so, my husband did so... I don't need to...talk about all the story that I have lived until now, do I? And so well....while being pregnant...well.. "Cham!" [smiling in a way of lamenting], I had believed God so much. Anyway, I began to have my mind that I had to believe God, I had to believe the God. And then I had thought constantly that my husband was a miserable man [tears in eyes] My husband is .. And I began to think that if I had turned back from and left him, then would this...man have lived another marriage life?; what would have happened to this man? For I had kept thinking this kind of thought in my mind, I could hardly have left him [laughing and crying]”(excerpts from topic segments 17 & 18). Mrs. Kim detached individually view of herself and her life from tragic experience. At session 1, Mrs. Kim stated: “Then… I thought I was going to like him because he came from America, but I did not like him at all when I met him first. So… .Anyway I felt like going to America with him because my family was so economically poor….Then to put it bluntly, I was thinking that even if I get separated from him in America, I will still go there. That is how I married him” (excerpt from topic segment 5). “While being pregnant, I prayed to God a lot. I prayed a lot like that, ‘Through the baby I will have, please don't let me get separated from my husband’. Like that way, I prayed a lot. In such a way, well, I had lived a life with him. Until now, I still have lived with him in that way.….” (excerpt from topic segment 9). “Can’t you imagine how terribly we were fighting against each other in the store for two years?” (excerpt from topic segment 24). "I never had thought of my husband as a husband" and until now I always had thought of him a son in me. It is just like a mother who always had embraced a son and lived to make him comfortable” (excerpt from the topic segment 94).The Third Stage of Disentangling or "Han-pul-li " Disentangling was coded when the client demonstrated releasing tangled emotions in the several ways: (1) The client’s personal entangled feelings of han became public, communicated, 192193 shared, and accepted; (2) She had companions to provide consolation and to help enhancing her self-dignity; (3) She was bound up with all participants in full of “Chong” (affection); and (4) She developed strong optimistic themes in the experience of “Han”; and she was able to easily relate to other’s suffering and forgave the mistakes of the others. Sample narratives are presented. Elaborate descriptions are included and will be found in Appendix D.Sample Narratives of Sessions 1, 6, and 12First, client’s personal entangled feelings of “Han” became public, communicated, shared, and accepted. At session 12, releasing an unspoken mental anguish or grief from her self- imposed prison by letting it evaporate, she read the letter to her mother she made before family members in very joyful manner as follows (T indicates therapist, F the father, M the mother, D1 the first daughter, and D2 the second daughter):T: Did you listen to what your mother read? [toward two daughter].D1/D2: Uhmm. Yeah [smiling].T: Did you listen well? [toward father]F:[smiling]M: [smiling]T: O.k.. So let’s share some ideas about what your mom experienced as a very young little girl….. Mr. Kim, what do you think about this?F: I don’t know [smiling] .T: …now she talks about her suffering life with her mother when she was a child. F: Yeah.T: Particularly, what do you understand?F: …well…it seems that her situation was a little bit different from mine.T: How?F:…Because I was born a first son in the rich family…..I was told that when I was born, there 193194 was double birthday party in two different house, one is my father’s hometown and the other my parent home. And yet…..I didn’t remember whether they did that or not. M: Because you was too little…T: You may not remember that [smiling] F: It was told that my first birth day party was held very big…T: Uhmmm. Your family situation was…F: Well, well…T: In your case, you was born at a wealthy family…F: Well…in the rich family… In my case there was more opportunity in the family situation. At that time, my father’s business also was very successful…..Without any worry, without any worry about food to eat…I lived the materially rich life” (excerpt from topic segment 6).Next, the client had companions to provide consolation and to help enhancing her self- dignity. By session 12, Mrs. Kim and family members present together fostered joy in sharing personal painful lived lives and shared empathy with her as follows: T: Christina, so you have any thing to share? What do you think of your mom?D2: I don’t know [smiling]. Uhmm.T: We know that your mom had very hard time in her childhood, Don’t we?D2: Yeah.T: And your mom had suffering from a lot of poverty.D2: Right.T: Right. D2: Uhmm.194195T: The lack of something that she had to have, gave your mom hopelessness…in her life. So can we feel that way? The way your mom felt? Can we feel the way? …F/M/D1/D2: [momentarily silent and calm]” (excerpt from topic segment 19)T: Do you have any experience with the suffering from hungry?F: Uh, I hadn’t have the long period of time like my wife, but my most suffering time was high school……When I was at high school…..All of a sudden, my parents came to do business for us. In order to make money, they had to work hard…nevertheless they didn’t make money big but when I came to see them, my father and my mother looked so bad….And I couldn’t even speak to them when I needed some money for food. I had to pay tuition… I couldn’t speak to them. So I had a little better situation related to the sorrow of hungry than my wife had….” ( excerpt from topic segment 20).Then, the client was in full of “Chong” (affection) with all participants in therapy. By session 12 it was observed that Mrs. Kim appeared to be most exited and exalted all the time. She was keeping smiling and very attentive toward all family members and therapist present. After the interview when she went out of the family therapy room, it was observed that she took very carefully her second daughter (Christina) and went down stairs hand in hand with her second daughter who appeared so cheerful and happy as well.The client developed strong optimistic themes in the experience of “Han” in three ways: (1) faith in God and Love of God (Christian values); (2) love of mother (a Korean cherished cultural family value); and (3) “Ob-bo”–retribution- (Buddhism teaching). At session 1, Mrs. Kim stated: “While being pregnant, I prayed to God a lot. I prayed a lot like that, ‘Through the baby I will have, please don't let me get separated from my husband’. Like that way, I prayed a lot. In such a way, well, I had lived a life with him. Until now, still I have lived with him in that way.…..” (excerpt from topic segment 18). " I never had thought of my husband as a husband and until now I always had thought of him a son in me. It is just like a mother who 195196 always had embraced a son and lived to make him comfortable” (excerpt from the topic segment 94 at the first session). “I had depended on my first child to help her younger sister with school work…..and the older pushed the younger one and the younger got stressed out. Then I decided not to do that way and sent the younger to extra school study program…..Right now she can read the book although it takes her a little time. And I might make her foolish if I haven’t teach her a little bit more. So now she seems to become so bright…..Before she might feel isolated, but now she is confident …..She seems to feel proud of herself. So I praised her saying you really are doing great job…. Right now I am concerned about my daughter so much [joyfully]” (excerpt from topic segments 81 & 82). At session 6, the client stated: “…I remember my mother who tried hard to life rather than just as one who spanked me.. I recall her that way…..” (excerpt from topic segment 19). “…..I feel really good…when I heard Gospel. I just feel good. Every word is good for my life. Truly trusting God and believing Him is good. And then I feel very peaceful…..I learned to believe in God and to pray when I was frustrated, the Bible say so. When pray I haven’t felt that peace before. Now I don’t have fear anymore….” (excerpt from topic segment 31). “When I pray for something I trouble with…..Although I don’t always kneel down to pray, I pray in my mind hoping for God to resolve this, and thinking like that …..But I don’t rush at all. I always endure hoping…without rushing until things work out. I just endure and endure…Then when I feel like I cannot stand it any more … I think to myself I should tolerate a little bit more and I do. Then problems are resolved after all the endurance” (excerpt from topic segments 32 & 33). “I always tell my mother that after she goes to heaven…she deserves a praise by the Lord to think back her life. She lived that well…..Frankly speaking, I really don’t want to live with my husband. But I think that sometimes it’s my cross to bear that is given by God…. Or it was given “Ob-bo” [a transitory leading and guiding principle in tragic fate in Buddhism] in my life. So that is the way to Heaven …..” (excerpt from topic segment 83). 196197Lastly, the client was able to easily relate to other’s suffering and forgive the mistakes of the others. By session 12, “I was really surprised to hear what Christina said because I didn’t know what she thought about. Although I always tell her to clean up and read books, I had no idea about whether she really thinks it important or she really thinks that she wants to do it or not. But when it was told that way, I feel reassured, O.k. and one more thing, I am so surprised at that Aha!. she is also able to concern about it” (excerpt from topic segment 24). “ I hated my father so much . I really was so angry with my father that I couldn’t forgive him…Now when I think of him, I really thank my father so much just only for his living a healthy life. And also I am so thankful to him only because he can live by himself without other’s help …..(excerpt from topic segment 12). The Fourth Stage of Mind-Emptying or "Ma-eum-bi-eun-da" The last stage, the mind emptying, was a leap from the reflecting phase. This was coded when the client appeared in the ways: she embraced both positive and negative aspects of life as it was; she realized the meaning of her suffering; she was able to put her life into a universal perspective such as human dignity/rights of women/children and compassion/love; and she found peace in her life with one another.The mind emptying occurred at sessions 6 and 12. From the session 6, she began to appear to take a small step toward transformation and went on far reaching out by the last session 12 (see the Table 10). Sample narratives are presented. Elaborate descriptions are included and will be found in Appendix D. Sample Narratives from Sessions 6 and 12First, the client viewed herself/other and situations in both positive and negative aspect of characteristics. At session 6, looking back on her suffering experience in the early childhood due to poverty she stated: “I don’t have to blame anyone else and I was made that way like mannish, like an untamed pony galloping everywhere. I believe that I have to do what I can do 197198 and I was able to do anything when I did my best. I have a feeling of accomplishment in the process rather than difficulty. I enjoyed it…..” (excerpt from topic segment 8). “ I was really active when I was young. Active...anyway, I think that bright and gloomy side of people’s life always existed side by side” (excerpt from topic segment 9). When therapist asked about how her mother did spank her when she had to do, Mrs. Kim immediately replied in retelling her mother in both negative and positive aspects: “I remember my mother as a mother who tried hard to live rather than just one who only spanked me” (excerpt from topic segment 19). “ I felt really happy to see my parents get along well together at my wedding. Of course, my father gave my mother very hard time but seeing both of my parents living along .…..I felt really happy” (excerpt from topic segment 19). “My brother married for love. When he married, my mother didn’t like the marriage. If a couple had support from the wealthy parents and they had to have a wedding in a so proper manner that they would consider seriously each other’s family background, It would be hard, wouldn’t it? But when you marry for love instead of an arranged marriage, the kind of background checking would be diminished. So thinking back on the situation, I am very thankful for his getting married for love” (excerpt from topic segment 22). Next, the client realized the meaning of her suffering. At session 6, “And another thing is that I myself often had thought…what I often told my mother…sometimes my mother still laments her life and so how I always comfort her is saying, ‘Mother, your life is truly …worthy’ I always said that way. Because if she had married to someone else yielding to that adversity…..then she would have been sorry for that for all the rest of her life… and she brought up her children well and now they all are in the right track on their lives…And when she lived with us together, even when she was really in hardship living with father at young age, she tired hard to do her best, no matter what. She really did….. ” (excerpt from topic segment 20). By session 12 in a letter to her loving mother that was read by her before the family and therapist: “Mother! It seems like a very old story but I think that it was so painful and difficult childhood for me…..And yet I imagine howI would have been different if I had been born in a very rich family. It is told that people need to 198199 buy to go through adversity at early ages. Now I am so thankful to the hardship although it had given to me against my will. Because of the sheer strength, at present time I am doing my best while thinking back on the tough days…..And also I always appreciate your love deep in my heart…..” (excerpt from topic segment 4 ). Furthermore, the client was able to put her life into a universal perspective known such as human dignity/rights of woman and child and compassion/love that belong to everyone. At session 6 when addressing a core issue of conflict with mother-in-law, Mrs. Kim stated: “Another burden to me is…my mother-in-law. I am still not comfortable with her…The day before yesterday, my mother told me that she got a phone call from my mother-in-law…..Because my mother felt so pity for me, she talked about me, saying about thing I worked hard all by myself what my mother-in-law said is…that money…telling that I borrowed so much money last time and I hadn’t paid back yet…..She said like that. She was stopping my mother’s mouth like that. But my mother may have something to say…like ‘If your son is smart enough…why would your daughter-in-law have to suffer so much?’…..If my mother-in-law had considered how important person I was to her son, how dare she speak to my mother like that …..My precious mother came this from far way…my father stays alone in Korea …..” (excerpt from topic segments 68 & 69). By session 12, “I was really surprised to hear what Christina said because I didn’t know what she thought about. Although I always tell her to clean up and read books, I had no idea about whether she really thinks it important or she really thinks that she wants to do it or not. But when it was told that way, I feel reassured, O.k. and one more thing, I am so surprised at that Aha!. she is also able to concern about it” (excerpt from topic segment 24). “I have tried hard to practice a life with the love God gives us…in a large way, that’s why I could stay married with my husband so far. Although I cannot follow the great way through which God loves us, I an trying to do my best with a will…to model on His love…..This is what I thought, what I think, and what I will think. If I would think about how…I as a mother, lead my family better. I think that if all of us see each other with love, then we could never yell at other; although it is given to hit children we 199200 need to have our mind made up to hit children with love in mind; and my daughters, ‘Susan and Christina, love each other, knowing that your sister is very special and the only one in the world”(excerpt from topic segment 89). Finally, the client came to be calm, tranquil, and serene. By session 12 when sharing her childhood experience, she stated very calmly: “Right now I think that when I was even six grade…my mother did picked up the pumpkin and peeled the skins like circle to dry them out…in those days there were a lot of lavish. And in the fall when the mother did dry the lavish under the hot sunshine, I did so even though the mother was not home d didn’t tell me to do that” (excerpt from topic segment 10); when looking back on her tragic experience at early ages, “In effect, right now what concerns me is that my children live in so comfort that they might not have the same feeling for the adversity because it needs to keep in mind for a rainy day in the future” (excerpt from topic segment 18). SummaryKorean “Han” (entangled emotional suffering) was presented as a major additional finding in this study. It represents cultural significance of language and therapeutic conversation, as well as culturally relevant coding categories in the cross-cultural practice process study. As a Korean client, Mrs. Kim experienced four levels of “Han” transformation through the therapeutic conversational dialogue. The Korean “Han” transformation processes include four major stages: the first stage “Sak-hee-gi” (fermenting), the second stage “Neul-deu-li (reflecting), the third stage “Han-pul-li” (disentangling), and the last fourth stage “Ma-eum-bi-eun-da” (mind emptying). “Han” transformation processes encompassed shifting from fermenting one's entangled emotions of suffering through reflecting and disentangling to transforming in emptying one's mind. It seemed that in the complication, Mrs. Kim's "Han" emerged when "Chong" (affection) in the family was paralyzed and "Sin-myung" (excitement or joyfulness) appeared 200201 when "Chong"(affection) was over-flowing as "Han" was transformed into the detachment from reality.Table and the sample narratives (direct quotes from raw data) in each coding category were presented. Further elaborate descriptions (further elaboration of the direct quotes of data) were found in Appendix D.201202CHAPTER VTHE RESULTS OF HYPOTHESIS TESTINGThis chapter presents the results of hypothesis testing associated with a major research question with four sub-questions. Findings about the positive relationship between therapeutic dialogical conversation and changing child abuse problem and generating a new meaning about parent-child relation, as indicated in a major research question, were addressed in the previous section. And the following four sub-questions have corresponding hypotheses. Hypothesis 1Research sub-question one reads: How does a CPS Korean immigrant client’s semantic frame of the physical child abuse problem change during therapy?It was predicted that client’s belief system of physical child abuse will re-relate the physical child abuse events in the context of new or different meaning during therapy. From the research question one, the two following hypotheses were derived to examine the nature of change in semantic frame of the physical child abuse problem. Hypotheses 1-1: Client’s belief system of physical child abuse problem will re-relate the physical child abuse event in the context of new/different meaning during therapy.The qualitative data for this hypothesis 1-1 were derived from the following thematic analysis: (1) change in family relationship meanings and (2) parental caring behavior meaning throughout the selected sessions of 1, 6, and 12.202203Tables 7 and 8 represent the data presented here. This study appears that the client mother shows an increased narrative of incidents of relating herself to harmonious and spiritual relations while being away from entangled relation as the therapy proceeds. In contrast to these three themes, the theme of multicultural relation appears more to remain most as recurring issues during sessions 1, 6, and 12. More specifically, this study tells us that as the therapy proceeds, the client is significantly less involved in the entangled relation including three domains: unparented relation, dishonored relation, and violent relation. It appears that in terms of parent-child relation, at session 1, the client appears to be mostly involved in all three domains of entangled relation while she appears to be less involved in those domains at session 6 and completely disappears by session 12. In particular, this study shows that by session 12, the client appears not to be involved in violent relation with all family members including child. With respect to multicultural relation, this study shows that during sessions 1 and 6, the domain of authoritarian/hierarchical with equal/achieved relation appears to be the most burning issue in all family subsystems including marital relation, parental relation, sibling relation, in- laws relation, and family of origin. However, by session 12, the client is not involved in those relationship issues except for parent-child subsystem as the client appears to be more involved in valuing harmonious and spiritual relation. Particularly, affectionate (“Chung”) relation domain appeared to be most dominant, along with all family subsystems at sessions 6 and 12. Again it is noteworthy that the client begins to involve affectionate relation with the child by session 12 after involving affectionate relationship with family of origin, in-laws, in particular mother-in-law, and husband at the session 6. On the other hand, this study shows that the client is equally involved in spiritual leadership relation with in-laws, husband, and child at session 6 while the client is little involved in the extended family relationship with in-laws, particularly mother-in-law by session 12. 203204This study clearly shows that at session 1, the client is mostly involved in entangled relations with all family subsystems including nuclear and extended family systems while at sessions 6 and 12 the client is little involved in those relations as she is mostly involved in harmonious relation with all family subsystems. However, but by session12, the client is mainly focusing on the issues of nuclear family subsystems including marital, parental, and sibling relations. As a result, this study suggests the association between change in family relationship meanings and change in the process of the description about child abuse problem. This study shows that client’s meaning about relationship between daughter-in-law and mother-in-laws and meaning about marital relation is significantly related to the meaning about parent-child relation. It appears that when the meanings about marital relation and in-laws relation have great influence on the client’s meaning about parent-child relationship, the client’s belief system of physical child abuse problem re-relates in the new context of family relationship meanings. According to the result in thematic analysis of parental caring behavior meaning, this study shows that the client appears to expand and multiply parental caring behavior meaning during the therapy sessions 1, 6, and 12. The client endorses both traditional Korean family values and Western societal values in the living context of multicultural community environment. More specifically, in session 1 the client shows great effects of familism, collectivism, hierarchism, and education on her parental caring behavior while little influence from compassion and leadership. However, client’s willpower rather plays continuously a significant role in family leadership. In contrast, at session 6, the client appears to have less influence from the importance of hierarchism and education. The client works against the parental authoritarian style, in particular father’s absolute family position (without question about what he is doing). In addition to little effect of hiearchism, the client has little impact of education. She didn’t state at all that child should be taught harshly and each child should develop self-responsibility. On the other hand, during session 6 the client appears to have strong influence from compassion and leadership on parental 204205 caring behavior. This trend continues to remain as significant effect on the parental caring behavior for the client by session 12. The client practices self-discipline. She respects and understands child’s developmental/emotional needs. She also shares affection together with children. She shares family leadership with her husband. She spiritually leads the family to the love of and faith in God along with longstanding enduring value of willpower. The present study clearly indicates that the Korean client’s change in meaning about whole family relationship brings forth the change in meaning about parent and child. As a result, this study appears that the client’s belief system of the physical child abuse problem significantly relates to the broader context of family relationship meaning and its resultant parental caring behavior meaning. This finding provides some support to Anderson’s (1997) view that “new self-stories, new first person narratives that permit the telling of a new history that is more tolerable, coherent, and continuous with present intention and agency, evolve” (p. 231). “Conversation in the postmodern interpretive and narrative perspective is a linguistic phenomenon, a meaning-generating process. Its transformational nature rests in the dialogical nature of conversation and its capacity to re- relate the events of our lives in the context of new and different meaning. Through conversation meaning that is unique and appropriate to the situation and the people involved in it develops. In the telling and retelling, not only do new stories emerge, but a person changes in relationship to them, the narrating self changes. Dialogical conversation is a generative process in which new meanings--different ways of understanding, making sense of, or punctuating one’s lived experience--emerge” (Anderson, 1997. P. 109). These changing narratives permit the liberating experience of a new sense of self-agency that may express itself in changed behaviors, thoughts, attitudes, or feelings about one’s wellness or concern. In this study, the client developed different meaning about her concern. The client constructed narratives that permitted her to develop and access self-agency, which led to different possibilities in her everyday life (Anderson, 1996). 205206In the hermeneutic philosophy of Gadamer (1975), “understanding is not a matter of forgetting our own horizon of meaning and putting ourselves within that of the alien text or the alien society, it means merging our own horizons with theirs” (Outhwaite, 1985, p.25). Drawing upon the philosophy of Heidegger, Gadamer sees the whole world as text to be interpreted: “To be human being is to be constantly structuring [one’s] world in terms of meaning” (Strener, 1991, p.31). For Gadamer, while there may be not be a single correct interpretation, some interpretations are, nevertheless, better than others. Criteria of internal consistency and comprehensiveness are brought to bear to support this position (Hollinger, 1994). The hypothesis1-1 was supported from the evidence of the literatures as well as the qualitative findings of thematic analysis in terms of family relationships and parental caring behavior meaning as given previously. Hypotheses 1-2 Client’s belief system of physical child abuse problem will shift from Either-or disjunction to a more both-and integration during therapy.The evidence pertaining to hypothesis1-2 was derived from coding analysis of perspective-taking development (specifically, single, polarized vs. multiple, mutual perspective taking) and dialogic speech development (specifically, monologue vs. dialogue) presented in the previous section. The qualitative data for this hypothesis are derived from coding categories of dialogic speech development and perspective taking development. Table 3 and 4 represent the data presented here. Table 3 tells us that the client shows a very significant decrease in monologic speech from 57.8 % at the first session through 17.2 % during session 6 to 0 % by session 12. In contrast, the client shows a significant increase in dialogue including both internal and external. At the first session the client shows 0 % for both internal and external dialogue while during session 6 206207 showing significant increase in internal dialogue up to 18.6 % and 63 % by session 12. The client also shows significant increase in external dialogue from 0% at sessions 1 and 6 to 26 % by session12. More specifically, by sessions 6 and 12 the client shows an increased narratives of multiple, mutual perspective taking and dialogue about child abuse problem by sessions 6 and 12 while showing decreased narratives of monologue and single, polarized perspective taking. At session 1, the client shows the opposite trend. At the first session, the client explains child abuse incident happened in the ways. At the first session, the client states, “Christina (the second daughter) and my husband are very much alike in character and so she relies on other. Susan (the first daughter) takes care of Christina very well and she and I are very much alike in character. Christina is just fool around for heaven’s sake. No matter how scaringly I tell her, she never listen to me. Then with my hot temper I just got to hit her. When the children do not follow the direction, Korean people beat them to make them ‘scared’ of physical punishment. Like this, ‘if you don’t do this by the time three, I will beat you. When Christina didn’t do what was told then I must hit her as I said. The Bible tells us that we have to discipline children with a whip instead of stiff rod. This is rule in my family. Christina’s older sister took very good care of her and she become lazy. That’s why I often hit Christina. I hit her in the morning because she needs to get ready for school and we were running out of time. But I couldn’t keep doing things for her. Although I could do that, I thought that I couldn’t do this any more because I thought that keeping doing this for her didn’t feel right. Although it is right for Christina since she was very young, but now she is growing up and it ought not to be allowed any more. She lacks a sense of responsibility. And she keeps shifting her responsibility to her sister and wouldn’t do what she can do. In the morning when she goes to school she must wash her face by herself. Although she cannot brush her teeth by herself, she should try to do that at least, but she stands there doing nothing. Christina should have done her job such as packing her school 207208 bag. After school, she just put her bag away in her room. She doesn’t do that. She just leave her bag there taking off school and go upstairs. She doesn’t listen to me when I tell her to put it away. Then I get to spank her. That’s why I hit her. There is no other intention at all in spanking her.” In contrast, by sessions 6 and 12 the client’s belief system shows more both-and integration. The client states: “ I don’t blame anyone. I believe that I have to do what I can do. I was able to do anything when I did my best. I felt accomplished rather than difficulty in the process. I enjoyed so much. It can be applicable to anything, to my children and husband. And I know that they got changed very much when I bestowed love on them and did all my best. I have tried hard to practice a life with the love God gives us. Although I cannot follow the same way through which God loves us, I try to do my best to model on His love even only a thousandth or even an infinitesimal part of the God’ love. This is what I thought, what I think, and what I will think. If I would think about how as a mother I lead the family better, I think that if all of us see each other with eyes loved, then we could never yell at each other although it is given to hit kids we need to have our mind make up to hit them with love in mind. If I let the child keep her room untidy or go to school without washing her face, she may get used to it and think that these behaviors are all right. I think that would be problem. I would like to give an opportunity for child to learn to be organized. I could at least have been trying to do so. I was really surprised at hearing what Christina said because I didn’t know what she thought. Although I always tell her to clean up the room and read the books, I had no idea that she really thinks it important or want to do it. Hearing that, I felt reassured and lucky. And one more thing that I was surprised at her thinking about these things important. I am thinking it is a great discovery for me. I didn’t care Christina too much. Although I cared the first child a lot, I was little bit concerned with her. And I had another boy at that time, so I expected the first one to take care of herself. I really feel sorry that I cannot help her a little bit more at home with study as it would make a big difference.She used to do nothing she supposed to do. Christina tried to do her own share. It occurred to me208209 that Christina could do things by herself if she was left responsible for herself. But after I left her alone for a few days, I couldn’t not stand it any more. So I called her out and put her belongings in her drawer. Putting them in, I explained her how to organize, telling her to put underwear here and socks there. Although I had made her clean up and scolded her, I didn’t know what she was thinking, whether she regarded it as her duty. Knowing that she knows what to do, I really am so thankful. Christina listens to every one in the family well, especially to me. I guess coaxing her works out best. Because Christina can manage to do things on her own, I praised her when she did well. A while ago when she did well I encouraged her telling she did really good job and kept it up and it works very well. In fact last time I forced but praised her at the same time. I used a half and half. One morning I sent my husband to work first and I stayed home more to have her ready for school. I told her that I would spank her if she didn’t put the school bag after school. That day her room was cleaner than before because I forced her to do that. On another morning I got her socks and clothes ready for her and ask her to put her laundries which were lying everywhere, then I praised her after she did that well. Beside those, she wasn’t really bad remarkably up until now. But I would say that praise works out better than forcing.”A postmodern point of view supported this finding. Tom Anderson (1987) emphasizes that every persons in a stuck system tends to think too much in terms of either/or and to compete for the right to denote what is the right understanding and the right action. In this narrative perspective the self, the narrator, is many Is, occupies many positions, and has many voices: the multiplicity of the self. The multiplicity of the self does not result in fragmentation, because it is the same I that is moving back and forth between several positions. Furthermore, this finding supported Bakhin’s view of the simultaneity of the dialogue which is merely a particular instance of the larger polyphony of social and discursive forces. Bakhtin calls “ heteroglossia.” Heteroglossia is a situation, or the situation of a subject surrounded by the myriad responses a person might make at any particular point, but any one of which must be framed in a specific discourse selected from the teeming thousands available. Heteroglossia is a 209210 way of conceiving the world as made up of a roiling mass of languages, each of which has its own distinct formal markers. These features are never purely formal, for each has associated with it a set of distinctive values and presuppositions. Heteroglossia governs the operation of meaning in the kind of utterance we call a literary text, as it does in any utterance. Dialogism assumes that at may given time, in any given place, there is a set of powerful but highly unstable conditions at work that will give a word uttered that there a meaning that is different from what it would be at other times and in other places (Holquist, 1990). The process of communicative meaning generating may be the incorporation for the voice of the other into own voice not the replacement of one by the other. In addition to the theoretical literature, several empirical studies supported the evidence for hypothesis 1-2. Exploring the construction of meaning in a second language, Walsh (1984) suggests that the influence of native language meaning is especially strong with regard to culturally salient words and occurs regardless of level of English language proficiency. Interlanguage conditions produced more semantic interference than intralanguage conditions. The findings suggest that both social context and culture play a dominant role in language acquisition and in semantic organization. A semantic shift accompanies English proficiency; words in the mother tongue take on English meaning. Hyun (1995), who did survey study of Korean self–construal associated with independent self construal and interdependent self-construal using non-clinical subjects- suggests that regardless of type of self-construal, Korean with a clear sense of self may enjoy more relational well-being than those with a less clear sense of self. Having a clear sense of “who I am” may provide the individual with confidence about the self, which may facilitate clear communication with others. This study showed that while highly Westernized Koran immigrant may hold a very independent view of self, Korean immigrant who have experiences adaptive limitations, because of their poor English proficiency and/or perceived personal limits in the U.S., tend to hold a very interdependent self-construal. This study also suggests that the independent self may be a 210211 requisite to successful live in the U.S. where the interdependent self may be a source for preserving cultural identity among many minority groups in the U.S. that value interdependence. The hypothesis 1-2 was supported from the evidence of the qualitative findings about dialogical speech development and perspective taking development as given in the previous section. Hypothesis 2 The research sub-question 2 reads: “How does the client’s process of description of child abuse problem change during therapy?” It was predicted that client’s description of physical child abuse problem would shift from simple actions to a more encompassing pattern during therapy. From the research sub-question two, the following hypothesis 2 was derived to examine the nature of descriptive process including child abuse problem. Hypothesis 3 stated that client’s description of physical child abuse problem will shift from simple actions to a more encompassing pattern during therapy.The data were derived from the qualitative findings of thematic analysis of family relationship meaning as described in the previous section. 211212Table 7 represents the data presented here. And it shows that the client appears to involve large multiple relationship systems with entangled conflicts with family of origin, in-laws, in particular, mother-in law, husband and child. It appears to be more significant for the client to describe the issues of entangled relations at the sessions 1 and 6 rather than the session 12. The client shows description about child abuse both in the contexts of both family relation and individual action. But it is much more in relational context and much little in simple action. For example, at the middle of session 1 after telling the stories about family of origin and in-laws, the client stated: “Christina (the second daughter) and my husband are very much alike in character and so she relies on the other. Susan (the first daughter) takes care of Christina very well and she and I are very much alike in character….Although it is right for Christina as she was very young, but now she is growing up and it ought not to be allowed any more. She lacks a sense of responsibility. And she keeps shifting her responsibility to her sister and wouldn’t do what she can. In the morning when she goes to school she must wash her face by herself. Although she cannot brush her teeth by herself, she should try to do that at least, but she stands there doing nothing” (excerpt from topic segment 61). When the children do not follow the direction, Korean people beat them to make them ‘scared’ of physical punishment. Like this, ‘if you don’t do this by the time counting three, I will beat you; Christina doesn’t do what is told by and I must hit her as I said (excerpt from topic segment 62). “The Bible says to us that we have to discipline children with a whip instead of stiff rod. This is rule in my family” (excerpt from topic segment 63). “Christina’s older sister took very good care of her and she become lazy. That’s why I hit Christina…..I hit her in the morning. Because she needs to get ready for school and we were running out of time, but I couldn’t keep doing things for her. 212213Although I could do that, I thought that I couldn’t do this any more because I thought that keeping doing this for her didn’t feel right” (excerpt from topic segment 66). “Christina should have done her job such as packing her school bag. After school, she just put her bag away in her room. She doesn’t do that. She just leave her bag there taking off school and go upstairs. She doesn’t listen to me when I tell her to put it away. Then I get to spank her. That’s why I hit her. There is no other intention at all in spanking her” (excerpt from topic segment 67). “Christina is just fool around for heaven’s sake. No matter how scaringly I tell her, she never listen to me….. Then with my hot temper I just got to hit her” (excerpt from topic segments 69 & 70). Once again, at the end of session 1, the client stated: “In fact I was thinking about what would be helpful for me to come in here by saying family counseling. I wasn’t think that I must come here just because of the child. The reason is that if the child became the battered, if the child became the motive for the battery I thought that there might be a concern, there would be wonder whether the family has its problem, so I think that my family has problem. But I know the problem, and have lived life by controlling the problem in my own way. I know the influence of my husband’s personality and his quick temperament the whole family very well. I control that very much and my husband too” (excerpt from topic segment 90 & 91). At session 6, looking back on her family of origin, the client stated: “I am not strict….Instead,I was …children were spanked a lot in those days. It seems that it was normal to get spanked in Korea. I feel terrible when I see a child get a slap in the head although they are not my children…. So I am very worried about my husband being hysterical…When I had to spank my first daughter…..I spanked her sharply….. Christina is afraid of spanking too. Even so she still fool around. I some times hit her on the heard lightly. But I really hate to hit children according to the parent’s temper…..My mother spanked me rather sternly when she had to do” (excerpts from topic segments 13, 14, 15, 16, & 17). “When my husband yelled at the children, I asked 213214 him, ‘when you are young, your father yelled at you and forced you to do something that you cannot do so that now you have mental difficulty?’ And he answered nothing. So when he comes in therapy, I would like for you (therapist) to talk about his experience with the relationship between him and his father and how to change the parental relationship. I think that seems really the important point” (excerpt from topic segment 136 & 137). Addressing her entangled relationship with her mother-in-law, the client shows clear description about the encompassing pattern connecting between marital relation and her relationship with mother–in-law that influence her position in parental role, the client stated: “When my mom was about to say that what my mother-in-law said is that I borrowed so much money last time and I haven’t paid it back yet…. Because my mom felt pity for me and she wanted to talk to my mother-in-law about thing that I work so hard all by myself. But my mother-in-law stopped my mom’s mouth like that way. My mom had something to say. Like if your son is smart enough, why would your daughter- in-law suffer so much? …. That left scar in my heart. If she considers me as important person to her son, how dare she say like that to my mom……Now I have entangled “Han” very much in the relationship with my mother-in-law” (excerpt from topic segment 68 & 69). “ I agree that the most important thing for me being a mother is set up the marital relations first and have a smooth marital relationship” (excerpt from topic segment 92). “ Sometimes when I think that I really have to live best for my husband and I got a call from mother-in-law, I often think of my self, what are you doing here?” (excerpt from topic segment 94). “I got nervous when I got cal from my mother-in-laws while I feel comfortable when no call is from her” (excerpt from topic segment 96). “After hearing from my mother-in-law, I begin to hate my husband and I become very angry at him rather than making happier family” (excerpt from topic segment 97). In contrast, by session12, the client shows little description about extended family relational pattern rather than nuclear family relational pattern. The client shows describing the child abuse problem in the family relational context. The client states: “ I think that there is difference between when the father see if his daughter is available to help him out or not and just calling 214215 out him to force to do something without consideration” (excerpt from topic segment 63). “I think that my husband just press the kids to do something without consideration. In that way, we can express each other the love in the family” (excerpt from topic segment 65). “I have tried hard to practice a life with the love God gives us. Although I cannot follow the same way through which God loves us, I try to do my best to model on His love even only a thousandth or even an infinitesimal part of the God’ love. This is what I thought, what I think, and what I will think. If I would think about how as a mother I lead the family better, I think that if all of us see each other with eyes in love, then we could never yell at each other although it is given to hit kids we need to have our mind make up to hit them with love in mind” (excerpt from topic segment 89). This study tells us that since the beginning of session 1, the client describes child abuse problem little in simple action and much in encompassing pattern. In contrast to my prediction, however, the Korean client’s description about child abuse problem was not significantly related to simple action such individual members as herself and child in the family rather than showing description about the relationship between parent and child. Why simple action pertaining to about child abuse problem has little influence on the client’s description process may be related to the fact that the client has more relational self-view rather than individualistic self-view. Some support for this theory is found in the way the client (the mother) endorsed both traditional Korean values and relational self-view, in the words of Hyun (1995), interdependent self-construal. In addition, the cultural influence of different self-view in relational self-view and individualistic self-view in the context of non-clinical setting has been well documented. Interestingly enough, this study appears that in the way of encompassing pattern the client starts from extended family relationship pattern including family of origin and in-laws toward nuclear family relationship pattern and her relationship with the child. The client shows that when she comes in therapy she always starts the therapy by telling stories enough about extended family and then moves over the stories about marital relation and parental relation later during sessions 1 and 6. 215216This finding also supported Keeney’s view that treating child beating as a problem involves addressing multiple semantic and descriptive frames. and vice versa--any construction of meaning requires a political frame to which to ascribe a name, classification, form, pattern, or meaning. It is called recursive dialectic of semantics and politics. Keeney (1987) proposes that politics indicates three orders of description corresponding to simple action, interaction, and social choreography. These may be understood as different levels of magnification. Keeney (1987) suggests that a particular symetrical interactional episode is part of a more encompassing pattern that includes the participation of a third person. In this study, for example, A’s (mother’s) symetrical relationship with B (the child) who is aversive may be seen as part of a social triadic relation involving A, B, and C (husband or mother-in-law). A and B’s being coercive-aversive might be about C, or C’s behavior may result in some form of shift in the interaction between A and B. Keeney (1987) states that as we ascend these levels of magnification or order of recursion, the terms we use to build descriptions of politics change. Client recursively directs therapist in how to direct the construction of semantic and descriptive frames. Explicitly knowing and organizing these patterns of direction in terms of semantics and descriptive process provides an avenue for learning the construction of creative and effective therapeutic realities.The hypothesis 2 was supported partially from the evidence of the qualitative findings about family relationship meaning by using thematic analysis as given previous section.Hypothesis 3 The research question three reads: How is the client’s change in meaning of physical child abuse problem related to the action during therapy? It was predicted that client’s description of physical child abuse problem will shift from simple actions to a more encompassing pattern during therapy. Form the research question 3, the following hypothesis 3 was derived: 216217As a fixed meaning of the physical child abuse problem moves toward more adaptive meaning, parent client will decrease coercive behavior and child client decrease an aversive behaviorData were extracted from the qualitative findings that abuse incidents stopped, parent’s coercive behavior decreased and a child’s aversive behavior decreased as given previously, as well as school teacher’s report on child and the mother client’s letter to therapist. The qualitative data for this hypothesis are derived from thematic analysis of parent’s coercive (child’s aversive) behavior change. Table 9 represents the data presented here. Table 9 tells us that the mother (client) shows a significantly decreased intensity and amount of use of coercive behavior toward her child. This coercive behavior includes corporal punishment, threat, disapproval, repeated commands, and paralyzed affection. The client shows significant decrease in corporal punishment at sessions of 1, 6, and 12. At the first session, the mother client shows harsh physical punishment without self-control while showing slightly beating the child with self-control at session 6. In contrast, by session 12, the client is able to stop the physical punishment toward her child. The client shows moderate high change in threat or punitive statement to the child. At the session 1, the client uses significant punitive statement and related to physical punishment immediately while at he session 6, showing no threat. However by the session12, the client shows moderate change in threat with noting her child physical punishment but it didn’t happen. In the way the client uses both threat and praise from time to time. The client shows significantly decreased use of disapproval. Comparing to sessions 1 and 6, she shows little disapproval but more encouragement, instruction, and praise by session 12. Instead the client shows increased verbal communication with the child. The client shows significant decrease in repeated commands. At session 1, the client repeated commands several times. She counted three before beating the child. However, by sessions 6 and 12, the client stops repeated commands. She shows increased observation of the situation where she and 217218 child are involved together before giving direction. Surprisingly enough the client is able to make use of logical thinking to evaluate the consequences of her interaction with the child. The client also shows significantly decreased paralyzed affection with the child. She is not able to be empathic with the fear of beating for the child at session 1. In contrast, by sessions 6 and 12 she is able to be empathic with fear of beating for the child. Evidence from School Teacher’s LetterIn school ‘s progress report on child, the teacher stated: “…..Christina (the second child) has been working hard as a second grader. She is taking more responsibility for her academic work. She seems to be more self-motivated. She has not complained about anyone hitting her at home. Christina did not have a lunch a couple of times this year but that seems to have been corrected. She occasionally complains about not feeling well and sometimes she tattles on other children…..” Evidence form the Mother Client’s LetterThe mother client’s letter addressed the positive change that occurred to herself and individual family members, including her husband, two daughters who participated in family treatment as follows:“…..At first time when I heard about family counseling I had thought that I t would look like too alien for me. But once I have participated in the counseling, I thought that it was a good chance for me to disentangle something entangled in my mind, and reorganize it. The change that has occurred in me is a realization that it would take grater effort on my part to bring about family system’s change. As a result of counseling, I have noted significant changes in my children: Susan (the first child) has become more generous toward her younger sister, Christina. Christina218219 also has become more generous toward her younger brother and she listens to her older sister very well…..” This finding supported White and Epston’s (1990) view that it is not the “underlying structure or dysfunction” that “determines the behaviors and interactions of family members,” rather, “it is the meaning that members attribute to events that determines their behavior” (p.3). They describe narratives as existing within two landscapes: the landscape of consciousness (meaning) and the landscape of action. Bogdon (1986) clarifies the link between meaning and action or between viewing and doing. He notes that “it cannot, strictly speaking, be the case that behaviors, problematic or otherwise, are maintained by other behaviors. I have no access to your behavior per se, only to my representation or interpretation of it. Therefore, it must be my interpretation of your behavior, not your behavior per se, that maintain my own actions” (p.35). The above statement is in line with constructivist/postmodern thinking on the subject of the interconnection between meaning and behavior. The hypothesis 3 was supported from the evidence of the qualitative findings about parent’s coercive behavior (child’s aversive behavior) change as given previously, as well as school’s report and the mother’s letter to therapist.Hypothesis 4 Research sub-question 4 states: What does a therapist do that contributes to the change in client’s narratives including the physical child abuse problem during therapy? It was predicted that as therapy proceeds and therapist becomes more responsive, client will participate more in dialogue and the client’s single, polarized perspective-taking will shift to more multiple, mutual perspective-taking. From the research question 4, the following three 219220 hypotheses were derived to more closely examine the relationship between therapist factor structure and client’s change in narratives including child abuse event. Hypothesis 4-1As therapy proceeds and therapist becomes more responsive, client will participate more in dialogue and the client’s single, polarized perspective-taking will shift to more multiple, mutual perspective-taking.The evidence pertaining to hypothesis 4-1 was derived from the qualitative findings of therapist responsive listening of relational-dialogical process; client’s perspective-taking development; and dialogic speech development as given previously. Therapist’s Responsive ListeningThe qualitative data for this hypothesis are derived from the coding category of therapist’s responsive listening in therapist dialogical–relational process. Table 6.2 represents the data presented here. The therapist shows more responsive listening than other therapeutic activities such as maintaining coherence and asking questions at sessions of 1 and 6. The therapist shows 55 % during session 1, 67 % at session 6, and 38 % by session 12. The therapist shows genuine manner and attitude that demonstrate sincere interest respect, and curiosity. The therapist shows interest in client’s view of the problem, its cause, its location, and its solution. Therapist learns client’s expectations of therapy and therapist. The therapist shows an openness to the client’s ideological base – her reality, belief and experiences. Therapist values the client’s knowledge about her pain, misery, or dilemma. Therapist gives much more room and time for the client’s story as necessary without interruption if the client choose to talk for a long time. The therapist shows comments and questions to try not to misunderstand by saying, “Is that what you are saying?” Is that what you mean? “ 220221Client’s Dialogic Speech DevelopmentThe qualitative data for the hypothesis are derived from the coding categories of dialogic speech development. As shown in Table 3, the client shows a significant increased dialogue at sessions 6 and 12 while showing more monologue at session 1. Showing 0 % of internal and external dialogue at session 1, the client shows session 8.6 % for internal dialogue at session 6, and 62 % of internal dialogue and 26 % of external dialogue by session12. As a result, the client participates in more dialogue as the therapy proceeds. This finding supported Vygotsky’s idea that higher mental function [i.e. thinking] appear on the inter-psychological plane before they appear on the intra-psychological plane. Thus individual human beings are conceived not as an isolated entity making its lonely way through the maze of a preprogrammed cognitive design like seen by Piaget. But as an organism intrinsically tied to community of others, the true direction of the development of thinking is not from the individual to the socialized, but from the social to the individual. Vygotsky, much like Bakhtin, emphasize social factors in the individual human being’s coming to consciousness, because both assume that thought is inner speech. Learning to talk is really learning to think. How the mother talks to her children and carry on extended dialogue with them is the important social conditioning for child’s coming to consciousness. Client’s Perspective Taking DevelopmentThe qualitative data for the hypothesis 4-1 are also derived from coding categories of perspective taking development. Four developmental levels of a perspective taking index were defined revising Selman and Byrne (1974): (1) single, polarized perspective taking which involves the recognition of the fixed and constraining narratives about self and other; (2) subjective perspective taking, which involves the acknowledgement of the existence of alternative perspectives but without a synthesis into a personal viewpoint; (3) self-reflective perspective taking, which involves a more sophisticated capacity to take a second person social 221222 perspective on the self’s actions ad intentions; and (4) multiple, mutual perspective taking, which involves the adoption of a third person perspective. Table 4 represents the data presented here. This study clearly tells that the client shows a significant shift of perspective taking level from single, polarized perspective taking to multiple, mutual perspective taking. The client’s single, polarized perspective taking appears 38.2 % at session 1; 17.2 % at session 6; and 0 % by session 12. In contrast, the client’s multiple, mutual perspective taking appears 0 % at session 1; 18.6 %; at session 6; and 32 % by sessions 12. As a result, the client’s single perspective taking shifts to more multiple perspective taking. The qualitative findings about positive relationship between therapist’s responsive listening and client’s dialogic speech development and perspective taking development did support Hypothesis 4-1. Hypothesis 4-1 was supported on all three predictions: Therapist became more responsive; client participated more in dialogical process; and client’s single, polarized perspective taking shifted to more multiple, mutual perspective taking.Hypothesis 4-2 As a therapist maintains coherence with client’s subjective narratives about the physical child abuse problem, the client’s perceived self will become more positively valued.The evidence for the hypothesis 4-2 was derived from the literatures, the qualitative findings pertaining to therapist’s relational-dialogical process (maintaining coherence with client’s first person narrative), client’s involvement modes of narrative sequence process, as well as from the therapist’s and mother client’s letters. The qualitative data for the hypothesis 4-2 are derived from the coding category of therapist’s maintaining coherence with client’s first person narratives in therapist dialogical–relational process. Table 6.2 represents the data presented here. The therapist shows continuing maintaining coherence at sessions of 1, 6, and 12. The therapist shows 18 % of maintaining activity during 222223 session 1; 9 % at session 6; and 12 % by session 12. This study shows that the therapist’s maintaining coherence with the client’s subjective story appears to be less compared to other activities such as asking questions and responsive listening in relational-dialogical process. Why does this happen? This phenomenon may be better understood as the closely interrelated aspects of the concept of not-knowing position. So then my prediction for the relationship between client’s positive self-value and therapist’s maintaining coherence with the client’s subjective story may have significant influence from two other activities and vice versa. This finding supported Bateson’s (1972) view that in order to entertain new and novel ideas, there has to be room for the familiar. Thus it allows a client less confining dialogic spaces for movement, and energy is not taken up with promoting, protecting, or convincing a therapist of a client’s view. Maintaining coherence also helps lesson the chance that a therapist’s voice might dominate and shape the story to be told and thus preclude a client’s version and the development of future versions with helpful nuances. Like Anderson (1997), Braten (1984) describes the process as intersubjective, a dialogue in which all participants can make room for one another’s creativity and consciousness. Thus newness emerges. The more familiar the parts, the more striking the whole. The living entities can operate only out of and in accord with the way they are built. If the relationship between the parts is “safe” enough, the mutual exchanges that carry new ideas may trigger new modes of relating. Helping the family client to understand the link between what one understands and how one understands offers the increasing possibility for the family to grasp the meaning of the problematic situation in its wholeness (Anderson, 1987). Client’s Positively Valued Self-Perception The qualitative data for hypothesis 4-1 are derived from the coding categories of involvement modes in narrative sequence process as shown previously in the section titled with narrative process sequences. Table 5.2 represents the data presented here and it shows us that the 223224 client appears to be significant increase in positive involvement mode during sessions 1, 6, and 12. The client shows an increased involvement in positive affect and evaluation from 11.7 % at the session1 through 24.1 % at session 6 to 34.3 % by session12. In contrast, the client shows a significantly decreased involvement in negative affect and evaluation from 56.9 % at the session1 through 47.6 % during session 6 to 8.8 % by session 12. This study shows clearly that the client’s perceived self becomes more positively valued as the therapy proceeds. This finding supported Eron & Lund’s (1993) the concept of preferred self-view which suggests a framework for how problem evolves and dissolves. When new events are construed as contradicting family member’s preferred narrative accounts, problems evolve. Problem dissolves when family members see the event, and the ideas and actions of other, as consonant with their preferred ways of being and acting. Eron and Lund (1993) noted that whether or not a problem develops in the wake of a life transition depends upon how key views of self and other affect different levels of perspective. In line with the work of Laing, Philiipson, and Lee (1966), the relevant vantage points include: One’s view of self; one’s view of the other; and one’s view of the other’s view of self. In general, Eron and Lund found common threads in problem evolution. Contradiction or “disjunctions” across these level of perspectives. Disjunction refers to the gap between how people prefer to be seen by others and how they have come to see others seeing them. Then Eron and Lund (1993) consider how problems evolve as this gap widens and how problems dissolve as this gap narrows. In general, by brining forth multiple points of view, as opposed to a normative or expert view, clients can decide their lives, based on their preferred values and intentions. Clearly, the way these points of view are constructed and expressed is subject to conventional and marginalized cultural discourse. Indeed, a constructionist approach to narrative forms suggests that they, too, are culturally constructed in a way that specifies their common organizational aspects, and thus are a way of understanding the relationship between oneself and one’s interpersonal world. When new events are construed in a way that contradict people’s preferred narrative accounts, problems “evolve.” Problems “dissolve” when people 224225 begin to see others seeing them in line with their preferred ways of being and acting. At that point, they begin to explore alternative stories of how things came to be problematic and to consider new actions to resolve their predicaments (Eron & Lund, 1993). Evidence from Therapist’s and Client Mother’s LettersAnother important evidence pertaining to the hypothesis 4-2 was derived from the letter exchange between the mother client and therapist who maintained coherence with client’s subjective narratives (such as ‘rhetorical language of ‘war streak’)The first letter was written by the therapist after session 12 as the response to the client’s request to make the point clear of a letter writing introduced at last session 12. The next letter was from the client mother. “ Dear Mrs. Kim and your families, How are you? We have seen each other for 12 weeks and I knew that there were probably a lot that had happened to you that I wanted to catch me up on. Although when we met together last time, you had been doing well especially in dealing with Christina, I know that I did not fully understand what happened to have you nd your family decide not let ‘War Streak’ take over your family life. I remember that when I first met you, ‘War streak’ had a pretty big hold on your family life. It seemed that it was getting you tangled up into an “I am all right and you are all wrong” relationship where they –your husband and children had nothing to say to you. How were you able to break your life and your family free from its hold on you about those things? It sounds like it has tried to creep back and trick you into thinking that it is helping you with making family, when it is really hurting you. How have you been able to outwit it so that it doesn’t mess up your family life?…..” .“How are you? At first time when I heard about family counseling I had thought that it would look like too alien for me. But once I have participated in the counseling, I think that it 225226 was a good chance for me to disentangle something entangled in my mind, and reorganize it. The change that has occurred in me is a realization that it would take grater effort on my part to bring about family system’s change. As a result of counseling, I have noted significant changes in my children: Susan (the first child) has become more generous toward her younger sister, Christina. Christina also ahs become more generous toward her younger brother and she listens to her older sister very well. I feel that my husband seems to be hard to transfer his thought into action. I think that it is, maybe, due to his personality which has been molded a long period of time. He often admits verbally that he is sorry for his shortcomings, but it seems that he behaves the same. He appears to be more relaxed when he shares his stories and his inner feelings. It seems to me that our basic trusting relationship gives me the willpower to overcome the roots of our problem. I think that like my family it would be beneficial for many other families to come and talk about their problems, small or big, and to find the first step toward the solutions. With my thanks to teacher, ….” The hypothesis 4-2 was supported from the qualitative findings pertaining to therapist’s maintaining coherence of relational-linguistic process, client’s involvement modes of narrative sequence process, and Korean “Han” transformation process. Hypothesis 4-2 was supported on all two prediction: Therapist maintained coherence with client’s subjective narratives ; and client ’s perceived self became more positively value.Hypothesis 4-3As a therapist’s conversational questions allows the client to tell her stories, the client will move more to the elaboration of description/explanation of the physical child abuse problem during therapy. 226227The evidence was derived from the qualitative findings pertaining to therapist’s asking conversational questions in relational-dialogical process and client’s temporality in the narrative sequence processes. Therapist’s Asking Conversational Questions The qualitative data for the hypothesis 4-3 are derived from the coding category of therapist’s asking conversational questions in therapist dialogical–relational process. Table 6.2 represents the data presented here. The therapist shows continuously asking questions at sessions 1, 6,and 12. Therapist’s asking questions appears the second high activity compared to two other categories such as responsive during sessions 1 and 6. In contrast, by session 12, the therapist shows highest score of asking conversational questions. The therapist scores 28 % of asking conversational questions at the first session; 24 % at session 6; and 52 % by session 12. This finding supported Anderson and Goolishian’s (1992) concept of a ‘not-knowing’ approach that allows the client to ‘make’ a new biological narrative, rather than to have imposed upon them one of a theoretically already determined kind, ‘found’ for them by therapist. From a postmodern perspective, because emphasis is on openness to new narrative and because the therapy narrative can never be known outside the dialogue of the moment, questions are always asked from the position of not-knowing. In other words, because a not-knowing position enables a therapist to express interest and curiosity in a client, questions from this position are more likely to come from inside rather than outside the local conversation. Questions from this position help a client tell, clarity, and expand on a story; open up new avenues and explore what is known or not-known; they help a therapist learn about and avoid misconceptions of the said and the not-yet said. In turn, each question leads to an elaboration of descriptions and explanations. Anderson (1997) calls such questions conversational questions (Anderson & Goolishian, 1988b; Goolishian, 1989; Goolishian & Anderson, 1990, Anderson, 1997). 227228Client’s Elaboration of Descriptions/Explanations of Physical Child Abuse ProblemQualitative findings of client’s temporality in narrative sequence processes was particularly apt for the evidence of client’s elaboration descriptions/explanations of physical child abuse problem associated with hypothesis 4-3 as it involves explicit narratives, narrative complexity development process. This finding supported Russell and Broek’ (1993) view that the way in which clients elaborate or simplify their linguistic expression can provide information about the complexity or poverty of their experience, their attunement to characteristics of possible audiences (such as children), and their level of knowledge about their narrative topics (such as physical child abuse problem) (Russell & Broek, 1993). Russell and Broek (1993) suggest that the elaboration of narratives is clinically relevant and studying this aspect of narratives reveal important information about therapeutic process. Moreover, Lord, Castelino, and Russell (1990) reported that there was a significant relationship between client depth of experiencing therapy and the degree of client subjective elaboration of the events in their speech. Because narrative techniques in psychotherapy share this goal of heightening and focusing the client’s attention on the representation of subjectivity, and because different theories of therapy prescribe different narrative means for therapists, an understanding of the representation of subjectivity in narrative seems clinically essential. Similarly, Sluzki (1992) proposes that transformation in time is the locus of transformative micro-practices throughout therapy. The inclusion of a time dimension in a time-less or static story, the fluctuation or the introduction of comparisons between then and now or between now and the future, allow the clients to recover a sense of evolution, a progression of events that expands their repertories of descriptions and interpretations of the problem, as well as their collective participation in its maintenance (Sluzki, 1992). As a result, assessing the client’s temporality as a transformation dimension of stories can provide us with understanding of paving the way for different-unsaid stories to be told. 228229The hypothesis 4-3 was supported from the evidence of the qualitative findings pertaining to therapist’s asking conversational questions in relational-dialogical process and client’s temporality in narrative sequence processes. It was supported on all two predictions: (1) the therapist’s conversational questions allowed client to tell her stories; (2) the client moved more to elaboration of descriptions/explanations concerning physical child abuse problem. SummaryIn sum, this chapter presented the results of hypotheses testing associated with a major research question with four sub-questions. Seven corresponding hypotheses followed by four sub- questions were supported from the evidences derived from the literature and qualitative findings. 229230CHAPTER VISUMMARY AND IMPLICATIONS FOR SOCIAL WORKThe purpose of this chapter is to summarize the main findings and to provide implications of this research for the field of social work profession. It is important to think about the findings reported in Chapter IV, so as to obtain a clear understanding of what these qualitative results mean for social work. What do these findings tell us about the specific research methodology used? What do these findings suggest about the value and use of cross-cultural process research for social work research?This chapter is organized into three sections. The first section presents a summary of the major findings as well as cultural significance of Korean “Han” transformation processes. The second section provides the implications of the findings for social work practice, child welfare (child protective service) policy, and social work research. The last section presents the conclusion. Summary of Major Qualitative FindingsThe summary of major qualitative findings is divided into three components: (1) the central findings associated with coding and thematic analysis, (2) cultural significance of Korean “Han” 230231 transformation process, and (3) restatement of hypothesis testing. The data in the major qualitative findings derived from both coding and thematic analyses suggest that a positive relationship exists between therapeutic dialogical conversation, changing child abuse problem, and generating a new meaning about parent-child relationship by a Korean immigrant client. Additional important finding is that Korean “Han” transformation process had cultural-linguistic significance for understanding of cross-cultural social work practice and research. 231232As a result of therapeutic conversational dialogue, the parent client reported a change in explanation and description of physical child abuse problem and a decrease in coercive behavior toward the child client who also showed the decreased aversive behavior toward her mother. Furthermore in working with the client, the therapist showed responsive listening, maintaining coherence with client’s subjective narratives, and asking conversational questions. The Central Qualitative FindingsThe central qualitative findings include the results of coding analysis and thematic analysis. Coding Analysis Coding analysis includes dialogic speech development, perspective–taking development, narrative process sequences, and therapist inter-subjectivity. Five stages of dialogical speech development include: monologic speech, social speech, private speech, internal speech, and external speech. Four levels of perspective-taking development are single, polarized perspective taking, subjective perspective taking, self-reflective perspective taking, and multiple, mutual perspective taking. Narrative process sequences is divided into three components: narrative process modes, involvement modes, and temporality. Narrative process modes include external, internal, reflective focus. Involvement modes include positive affect/evaluation, positive & negative, negative, neutral, and minimal. Temporal orientation include distant past, recent past, past & present, present, past/present/future, future. Therapist inter-subjectivity is divided into two components: therapist interactional modes; and therapist dialogical-relational process. First, therapist intractional modes include asking, telling, and listening, which have its sub-categories. The second, therapist dialogical-relational process includes responsive listening, maintain coherence, and asking conversational questions. 232233Thematic AnalysisThematic analysis includes family relationship meaning, parental caring behavior meaning, and parental coercive (child aversive) behavior change. First, family relationship meaning includes four themes and 12 domains. Theme A: Entangled relationDomain1: unparented relation, Domain 2: violent relation, and Domain 3: dishonored relation,Theme B: Multicultural relationDomain 4: collective-help with self-help relation, Domain 5: authoritative/hierarchical with equal/achieved relationDomain 6: advantaged with disadvantaged parental relation Theme C: Harmonious relationDomain 7: self-disciplined relationDomain 8: affectionate relation Domain 9: synchronous relationTheme D: Spiritual relationDomain 10: normal Christian relationDomain 11: retributionDomain 12: spiritual leadership relationThe second, parental caring behavior meaning includes six themes and 17 domains.Theme A: Familism Domain 1: Child is the extended part of family system. Domain 2: Family obligation is a solid foundation for child well-being and growth.233234Domain 3: Parental relation is affected by marital/extended family system.Theme B: CollectivismDomain 4: Child care is supported by extended family.Domain 5: Family financial aid is supported by extended family. Theme C: HierarchismDomain 6: Parents provide authorityDomain 7: Father is in the absolute family position.Domain 8: The younger child should listen to the older one.Theme D: EducationDomain 9: Child should be taught.Domain 10: Child should be disciplined harshly.Domain 11: Each child should develop self-responsibility.Theme E: CompassionDomain 12: Parents practice self-discipline.Domain 13: Parents respect/understand the child’s developmental/emotional needs.Domain 14: Parents share affection with children.Theme F: Leadership Domain 15: Parents lead the family with willpower individually.Domain 16: Parents share family leadership responsibility together.Domain 17: Parents lead spiritually the family to the love of and faith in God.Finally, parent coercive (child aversive) behavior change includes six themes. Theme 1: Corporal punishmentTheme 2: ThreatTheme 3: DisapprovalTheme 4: Negative demand234235Theme 5: Repeated demandsTheme 6: Paralyzed affectionCultural Significance of Korean “Han” Transformation ProcessesKorean “Han” transformation processes were coded and studied to understand culturally relevant coding categories. More specifically this may strengthen the culturally relevant construct validity in cross-cultural research addressing the therapeutic change processes. As the result, this coding processes may contribute to maximizing the manifestation of the client’s own voices and stories while minimizing the risk to the bias from a point of view of predominant cultural meaning and interpretation on the data analysis. Although the exact translation and interpretation of the meaning of “Han” into the word in English is not easy, it denotes the long-held entangled emotions of suffering that are developed over the time by tragic life events and situations. “Han” is an indigenous form of lamentation. The four transformation stages that were involved in this study are: (1) the first stage of fermenting or “Sak-hee-gi”; (2) the second of reflecting or “Neuk- deul-li”; (3) the third of disentangling or “Han-pul-li”; and (4) the last stage of mind-emptying or “Ma-eum-bi-eun-da” (Kim & Choi, 1994, 1995). This study showed that the core client, Mrs. Kim experienced four “Han” transformation processes. She showed more of the shift of “Han” from fermenting her deeply entangled suffering emotions through reflecting and entangling to transforming in mind-emptying at sessions 1, 6, and 12.235236Restatement of the Major Hypothesis Testing Seven hypotheses were tested by coding analysis and thematic analysis to understand how a CPS referred Korean client uses therapeutic dialogical conversation to resolve child abuse problem and generate new meaning about parent-child relation. 1. Hypothesis about Semantic Frame Change in Physical Child Abuse Problem1-1. Interpretive Context of Meaning about Physical Child Abuse Problem Client will re-relate the physical child abuse event in the context of new/different meaning during therapy. The hypothesis 1-1 was supported as predicted.1-2. Interpretive Structure of Meaning about Physical Child Abuse ProblemClient’s belief system of physical child abuse problem will shift from either/or logic of disjunction to more both-and integration during therapy. The hypothesis 1-2 was supported as predicted.2. Hypothesis about Change in Description of Child Abuse ProblemClient’s description of physical child abuse problem will shift from simple actions to a more encompassing pattern during therapy. In contrast to my prediction, hypothesis 2 was supported partially. This study showed that client’s description of physical child abuse problem shifted from both less simple actions and more interactional patterns to more interlocking/encompassing pattern during therapy. For the Korean client’s self-construction represented significantly relational view. Although individualistic self-view (such as independence and accomplishment) was seen in family relationship meaning and parental caring behavior meaning it still didn’t go beyond the boundaries. It finally became blurred into relational self-view. Client’s description of physical child abuse problem shifted from both less simple actions and more relational patterns to more relational encompassing pattern during therapy. 2362373. Hypothesis about Relationship between Parent Client’s Change in Meaning of Child Abuse Problem and Change in Parent’s Coercive (Child’s Aversive) Behavior As a fixed meaning of the physical child abuse problem moved toward adaptive meaning, parent client decreased coercive behavior and child client decreased aversive behavior. The hypothesis 3 was supported as predicted.4. Hypothesis about Relationship between Therapist’s Activities and Client’s Change Hypothesis about relationship between therapist’s activities and client’s change was derived from the research question 4. “What does a therapist do that contributes to the change in client’s narratives including child abuse problem?” If there is a positive linguistic and behavioral change for client, what are the specific characteristics unique to therapeutic conversational dialogue for therapist? 4-1 Relationship between Therapist’s Responsive Listening and Client’s Dialogical Process and Perspective Taking As therapy proceeded and therapist became more responsive, client participated more in dialogue and the client’s single, polarized perspective-taking shifted to more multiple, mutual perspective-taking. The hypothesis 4-1 was supported as predicted. The data from the literature and qualitative findings of therapists’ responsive listening in relational–dialogical process, client’s perspective taking development, and client’s dialogical speech development by coding analysis, suggested that a positive relationship existed between therapist’s responsive listening and client’s dialogical process and perspective taking. 4-2 Relationship Between Therapist’s Maintaining Coherence and Client’s Positively Perceived Self-Value It was hypothesized that as a therapist maintained coherence with client’s subjective narratives about the physical child abuse problem, the client’s perceived self became more positively valued. The hypothesis 4-2 was supported as predicted. The data from the literature and 237238 qualitative findings of therapist’s maintaining coherence in therapist’s relational-dialogical process and client’s involvement modes in narrative sequence process by coding analysis showed that a positive relationship existed between therapist’s maintaining coherence and client’s positive self-perception.4-3. Relationship between Therapist’s Asking Conversational Questions and Client’s Elaboration of Child Abuse Problem It was hypothesized that as a therapist’s conversational questions allowed the client to tell her stories, the client moved more to the elaboration of description/explanation of the physical child abuse problem during therapy. This hypothesis was supported as predicted. The evidence from the literatures and qualitative findings pertaining to therapist’s asking conversational questions in therapist relational-dialogical process and client’s temporality in narrative sequence process, suggested that a positive relationship appeared between therapist’s asking conversational questions and client’s elaboration of description/explanation of physical child abuse problem. Implications for Social WorkThe major implications of findings are addressed in terms of three types of social work practice framework (i.e., practice perspective, practice theory, and practice model), child protective service policy, and clinical research with Korean American parents/families involving child abuse problems. In particular, the additional finding of Korean “Han” transformation processes has a cross-cultural implication for practice issues of trauma, mourning process, and women’s issues such as prejudice and discrimination against women in social work. Theoretical Implications for Practice238239Practice Perspective Practice perspective is a conceptual lens through which one views human behavior and social structures and which, simultaneously, guide the selection of intervention strategies. In general, two perspectives (i.e., the general systems and the ecosystems) are commonly used in social work for assessing the relationships between people and their environment. But both of these approaches are problem-focused and tend to overlook the strengths in clients’ internal space and social environment, which can be determined with the social network assessment strategy. Others, such as the generalist, feminist, and ethnic-sensitive practice perspectives, focus more on the philosophy and processes working toward change. To meet the need for a social work perspective that fully takes the social-linguistic environment into account, social workers need to develop the person in language systems environment manual to use instead of, or, together with, The Person in Environment Manuel. From a postmodern collaborative approach, Anderson (1997) proposes the following philosophical assumptions: 1. Human (family) systems are language- and meaning-generating systems. 2. Their construction of reality is forms of social action rather than independent individual mental processes.3. An individual mind is a social composition, and self, therefore, becomes a social, relational composition.4.The reality and meaning that we attribute to ourselves and others and to experiences nd events of our selves are interactional phenomena created and experienced by individuals in conversation and action (through language) with one another and with themselves.5. Language is generative, gives order and meaning to our lives and our world, and functions as a form of social participation. 6. Knowledge is relational and is embodied and generated in language and our everyday practice (p. 3). 239240These assumptions have profound implications in every human endeavor, especially for therapy and therapists, in the way a therapist thinks about human beings and our roles in their lives, the way a therapist conceptualizes and participates in a therapy system, therapy process, and therapy relationship. As a result, this study may make a contribution to current knowledge base in social work as an alternative paradigm in working with abusive parents and families. This study can add to this knowledge base. Another important practice perspective to which we need to bring attention in working with Korean clients is the spirituality. The present study demonstrated that a Korean immigrant family client has many spiritual philosophies and practical insights that are little known in American social work, including perspectives of Buddhism, Confucianism, and Christianity. Buddhist spirituality may be described as the consistent exercise of self-effort, directed to the attainment of enlightenment for self and all other beings. Given the great effort required, traditional Buddhism stresses the importance of monastic life-style for this spiritual path. In contrast, Confucian spirituality may be described practicing humanness and mindfulness in all aspects of daily life, such that cultivation of self and serving society are complementary (Tu, 1978, 1989, Canda, 1993). Many immigrant Koreans continue to combine helping insights and resources from all three ways on an as-needed basis. It is clear that the traditional philosophies of human service in Korea differ markedly in beliefs from those of the Euro-American. The traditional Korean perspectives are nontheistic or animistic in contrast to the theism of Jewish and Christian traditions. In the past few decades, American social work had begun to take seriously insights from Buddhism (manily Zen) and various forms of spiritism and shamanism. However, Conficianism was completely absent from American social work influences, as of the time of Canda’s study, despite its strong importance for many Asian Americans. Hence, this study calls for greater attention for the sake of learning from these traditions to bring about innovations in 240241American social work, and for the intrinsic scholarly and humanitarian value of international and cross-cultural understanding of social work in the contemporary. Practice Theory Practice theories focus on client and helping activities. Practice theories offer both explanations of certain behaviors or situation and broad guidelines about how those behaviors or situations can be changed. Those also serve as a road map for an intervention that will bring about a certain type of change. This study reveals the significant role the concepts of a relational view of self and narrative identity played in understanding the client’s change process. Central to the many linguistic and socially derived narratives that emerge in behavioral organization are those that contain the elements articulated as self-stories, self-descriptions, or first-person narratives. The development of these self-defining narratives takes place in social and local context involving conversation and action with significant others, including one’s self. A linguistic and dialogic view of self emphasizes this social nature of the self – as emerging in and embodied in relationships. It also emphasizes our capacity to create meaning through conversation. This linguistic relational view of self proposed by Gergen (1987, 1989, 1991), supports that the self (and other) is realized in language and dialogue and becomes a linguistic dialogical self. Inherent in this view is that a narrative never represents a single voice, but rather a multiple authored self, and because we are constituted in dialogue, we are ever-changing (Anderson, 1997). This linguistic relational view of self is in sharp contrast with psychology’s more usual definition of self, which Bruner (1990) chides for being “whatever is measured by tests of self-concepts” (p. 101). Selves we construct are the outcomes of this [narrative, story-telling, and language] process of meaning construction…..Selves are not isolated nuclei of consciousness locked in the head, but are “distributed” interpersonally. Then this study suggests that we must pay attention not only to the construction of the “I” but also to the construction of, and importance of, the other – the you. As Shotter (1989) emphasizes, the relationship is ours, not just mine.241242In this study, Mrs. Kim, as a core client, showed the change in her conception of the self. In a way, certain elements of independent view of self are incorporated into her interdependent view. The incorporated construal of the self was the mix of these two views that recognized the individual’s dignity and needs (in this study, woman’s and child’s self-dignity and needs). This study also showed that there was a growing realization for the case of Mrs. Kim that the better aspects of Korean cultural traditions were cultivated and preserved from the certain Western influence of which is characterized as “ free choice”, “rights”, “freedom”, “materialism”, or “moral decay.” For example, respect for learning, family honor, harmony with other, emotional security, family loyalty are still practiced by her very much. Given the facts, this study suggests that child protective service policy should take a serious consideration into the significance of the variance in self-construal change directing caring parent-child relations in the context of new family relationship meanings for Korean immigrant parents and families. Practice Model Practice model is a set of concepts and principles used to guide certain interventions. However, in contrast to a practice theory, a model is not tied to a particular explanation of behavior. Most often a model develops out of actual experience or experimentation rather then evolving from a particular theory of behavior. One of the most important theoretical implications of findings is for social work practice model. Short-term treatment models such as crisis intervention, cognitive-behavioral intervention, and task-oriented intervention are mostly used to help the families involving child abuse problems. And yet a long-term treatment model such as a narrative approach bring about change in abusive behaviors that are concerned. This study reveals clearly that as a client, Mrs. Kim encountered and lived in poverty, trauma, and structural discrimination since her very early life. And yet she didn’t seek material resources in helping process to resolve child abuse problem rather than having therapist listen to 242243 her personal tragedies in her life that she liked to bring out first. At this point, of course, we might think that the causes of child abuse for the parents are poverty, traumatic experience, and social structural discrimination. But the client sought for the help to work out the internal suffering. The treatment model that is mostly applied for abused parent is based on the cause-effect paradigm. It approaches parents with the provision of doing something for the abusive parents and families. For example, in Sherman’s family first model, treatment is to go home and teach parents about parenting skills, as well as focusing on getting external resources rather than having internal spaces to be healed from the trauma that they had lived in. It has been obvious that this model doesn’t work well; it doesn’t seem to help reduce parent abusive behaviors. Then this study brings a strong recommendation that theories of treatment model seek to undergird the infinite of potential power of human dignity. This is an essential aspect of internal positive resource as healing power from within human selfhood. It waits for more of encounter with the unsaid self and others. Through this, suffering clients regain the authority over themselves in their living lives. Another implication is that a dialogical conversational process is an essential component of clinical practice in helping abusive parents to resolve child abuse problems. It is obvious that how the therapist responded played a significant role in generating new relationship between parent- child and resolve the child abuse problem for the client. The most single important key point of how therapist responded in helping process was to respect, listen, and believe whatsoever the client talked about. Therapist was never critical of what the client was saying or did not comment on negatively. The therapist never ended up with de-appreciating what the client talked about. Therapist helped client have self-images of listened and respected as becoming a dignified human being in the presence of self-consciousness. Therapist became an actively responsive-reflective listener not a corrector, an interventionist for the helping process. Many contemporary practitioner might have wonder what if practitioners do not or never confront and intervene with the client; could the therapist help the client resolve the complex problem. This study answered 243244 clearly “Yes, of course, we can do so.” The findings in generating new family relational meanings suggest that efforts at discovering and enhancing cross-culturally relevant communicative multiple meaning construction by clinical social workers can lead to successful treatment process and outcomes. Atwood and Stolorow (1984) refer to the new science of the intersubjective, the interplay between the differently organized subjective worlds of the observer and observed” (p.41). Anderson and Goolishian (1992) mention a “not-knowing” approach to therapy, emphasizing the fundamental importance of becoming as absolutely interested and open as we can, actively utilizing our genuine curiosity about the client’s story. Implications for Child Protective Service PolicyThis study clearly shows that the CPS referred Korean client’s generating a new meaning about parent-child relations resulting in change in parental child abusive behaviors required collaborative-dialogical relationship between parent and social service provider. Working with Korean children and families adapting to new family relationship associated with sociocultural change requires collaborative child protective service policy procedures because the joint effects on the clients of two cultures (the culture of the individual and the culture of the environment) can have quite different psycho-social effects for the Korean clients who are marginalized minority clients. In this study, the client didn’t know much about child protective services mandated to help all cultural-ethnic families and children in this country to stop child abuse. Questions arise: What physical child abuse is all about, how the case can be reported, who can make a report on child abuse, what American school does in relation to child abuse report, and how their children are taught in learning how to use school counseling services to protect themselves from beating at home. The client struggle to construct coordinated family meaning that plays a significant role in negotiating caring parental behavior meaning in the family’s experience with each other. Coordinated meanings about family relationship do not emerge early or quickly within relationship (Galvin & Brommel, 1996) unless the relational-linguistic 244245 environment offers co-partnership that can bring forth coherence with existing preferred values. This study suggests that the Korean client needs collaborative, non-hierarchical relationship with service providers. In a way, child protective services should provide new immigrant Korean parents with comprehensive cultural education program (e.g., orientation toward new social- cultural difference) given by bilingual service program. The prevention of child abuse problem with Asian children and families in general and Korean children and families in particular, adapting to sociocultural change requires a careful assessment of diversity in ethnic background. This diversity is at once a source of strength and a challenge to the development of a more coherent child protective service system that meets all children and all families. Preserving parents’ choices in the care and rearing of their children is essential, which is consistent with Asian families’ preferred view of parental caring behavior. Implications for Clinical ResearchThere is paucity in which cross-cultural research addresses the therapeutic change process; in particular, it is absent with respect to child abuse problem among Korean immigrant families. The finding of the cultural variation in the view of the self has significant implications for clinical research. Researchers reported that the Asian self-descriptions re more concrete and role- specific, whereas the American descriptions include more psychological traits or attributes characterizations ( Markus & Kitayama; Triandis, 1989). The independent view of the self prevalent in the Western, (individualistic) societies is found to be not universal, but culture- bound. Recent anthropological and psychological research indicates a very different conceptualization of the self common in non-Western, collectivistic cultures. This view of the self, variously referred to, with somewhat different connotations, as holistic, sociocentric, collective, allocentric, and relational, is characterized as interdependent with others (Hsu, 1985; Markus & Kitayama; Hyun, 1995). 245246Employing survey research techniques, Hyun (1995) compared two different groups of Koreans, Koreans in Korea and Korean immigrant in the U.S. to explore the nature of the cultural influence on these Korean’s psychological functioning. Hyun proposes that there is variability in Korean’s construal of the self: (1) interdependent self as traditional Korean conception of the self based on Confucianism, and (2) independent view of self as Western conception of the self based on Western individualism. The Confucian conception of the self is fundamentally grounded in human relatedness and places the individual in a web of interpersonal relationship. Behavior is thus understood and evaluated with reference to one’s place in the Traditionally, Korean’s awareness of the self is hardly separated from their awareness of the family. Korean’s commitment to their family is so strong that some people even think that the basic unit of the self among Koreans is not the individual, but the family.Maday and Szalay (1976), who examined the psychological connotation of “self” with a sample of Korean and American male subjects, confirmed the importance of family in Korean culture. According to theses researchers, Korean respondents’ verbal association to the concept “me” converged to five most important themes, which included in descending order: (1) family, love; (2) ideals, happiness, freedom; (3) hope, ambition, success; (4) money, material, goods; and(5) education, knowledge, intelligence. In contrast, American responses showed a convergence around the individual and his physical and emotional conditions. The five most frequent themes in descending order were: (1) I, person, individual; (2) other people; (3) tired, lonely, physical appearance; (4) good, friendly, sociable; and (5) family, love. The researchers noted that the America conception of “me” focused on the individual self. The Korean conception of “me”, on the other hand, included family members (e.g., father, mother, brother and parents) as a major constituent of the self; the emotion associated with intimate relationships, love that binds the members of the relationship together, was also a central component. Based on these findings, Maday and Szalay (1976) suggested that both Koreans and Americans related to a different set of significant others. For Koreans, the family occupies the central place. They are motivated to 246247 contribute to their family happiness and material success. Americans, on the other hand, need to prove their worth to strangers. Koreans may be called family-oriented collectivists. Their traditional conception of the self reflects the recognition of human interdependence and the concern for others, especially “family relationship.” Korean’s construal of the self has fostered a strong “we” consciousness among Koreans. A comparative study on the psychological connotation of “woo-ri” (we) to Koreans and Canadians found the expected differences between collectivists and individualists for these two sample(Choi & Choi, 1990). For Koreans, the most salient psychological connotation of “woo-ri” was the affective bond shared by the members of a group. Fifty-five percent of the responses clustered around the affective words such as “affection, intimacy, comfort, and acceptance.” For Canadians, on the other hand, “we” simply referred to an aggregate of people, a loose cluster of individuals: “I” and others, two people and me.” This finding provides some support to Markus and Kitayama’s view that the psychological consequences of having one or another construal of self are distinctively different (Hyun, 1995). Furthermore, with respect to gender and self, Hoffman (1995) proposes that the essential power of Korean women appears to lie in the creation and maintenance of patterns of physical and emotional dependency between men and women. Significantly despite his appearance of aloofness, the husband’s emotional dependency upon the wife is commonly quite strong in Korean marriages. (This is a reversal of the American pattern where, if any emotional dependency is acknowledged, it is more commonly she who is dependent upon her husband.). In contrast to the American ideal of emotional self-sufficiency and independence for both partners, the Koran wife has a principal role in managing her husband’s emotional life, especially in the all-important domain of “ki-bun” (or roughly, “mood”). As a result, beneath what may be the surface appearance of aloofness and distance between husband and wife, there is a certain quality of emotional bondedness and dependency in Korean marriage that most Westerners would find overly close or even suffocating. Indeed, Koreans speak of “chong”(affection) in their close relationships, implying a sort of bondeness, intimacy, and warmth that functions as the “social 247248 glues” between self and others, cementing them together in a kind of permanent closeness regardless of their emotional ups and downs, their disagreements, their personal problems, etc. According to the Korean conceptualization of marriage, sexual relations definitively erase the separatedness of man and women, for the two become “one body,” Moreover not only bodies are involved” selves, too, lose their boundedness. It is not a case of a temporary merging of male and female in which both persons retain and return to a separate, individual status and identity (as in America), but one of absolute intimacy, where the oneness of being that exists prior to all other definitions of gender and self is asserted (Hoffman, 1995). Korean couples can fight with, abandon, and not break up their bond (based on the absolute intimacy of self-other identification), cannot be broken by the mere emotional ups and downs of everyday human relations ( In deed, Koreans have a saying that reflects this very points: “Fighting between husband and wife is like a knife cutting water”). The concept of bodily fusion (what Koreans called the “one body theory”) that erased individual identities of self and gender has been well documented. Given the fact that it is highly unlikely that Koreans’ conception of the self will be changed entirely from the view of an interdependent being to the view of an autonomous, independent being, this study suggests that the clinical research with Asian immigrant requires a stand as safeguard against drawing false parallels between one cultural group and another throughout the process of research. As Uehara, Sohng, etc, (1996) suggest, multicultural social work research must go beyond reflection on group culture and “intergroup cultural differences to critical analysis of the social, political and cultural forces that maintain patterns of intergroup domination and inequality” (p. 615). Korean’s self-construction has been studied with regard to non-clinical samples but not with clinical samples that address the change process. At this point, this study made a contribution to the cross-cultural understanding of change process of child abuse problem. More specifically, coding categories of Korean “Han” transformation processes provide us with understanding of an integrative link between Western & Eastern theories, (especially Korean theories) of treatment 248249 and invites cross-cultural exploration. In addition to the theoretical linkage, the concept of “Han” provides a new possibility for bring forth cross-cultural coding schemes and clinical judgement as a way of strengthen construct validity (trustworthiness). Frequently used assessment techniques (e.g., the Thematic Apperception Test, the Wechsler Memory Scales, and the Means-Ends Problem Solving Test) rely on clients’ narrative production and on comprehension, as well as professionals’ narrative competence in employing standardized narrative coding schemes and clinical judgement (Russell & Broek, 1993). To embody the ideal of the social work practitioner-researcher is another implication indicating that we should heed the differences between positivist inquiry and interpretive/ social constructionalist study. Practitioner who works and thinks in a world of multiple stories and narratives is expected, by traditional paradigm, to selectively forget his or her tacit practice knowledge, and, in the name of objectivity, to put aside the desire to envision more humane possibilities. In this study, client voice-centered, collaborative, and truth-making inquiry were strengthened to break down barriers between social workers and researchers, and to help raise the voices of our constituences for marginalized ethnic minority clients. We must rethink how to do research that can be the basis for advocacy. We could begin by returning the human voice to our research, welcoming pluralism in experience, method, and implementation (England, 1994). Practitioners are taught to respect the person-in-situation and foster individual agency, the self- determination of the client. Yet we privilege the abstract, statistical aggregate in social work research) average tendencies, but not individual lives in context. Most published work emphasizes product—findings-not the process of investigation. The Task Force on Social work Research (1991) identifies the lack of connection between practice and research as a major problem in the field, and recommends strengthening research training al all levels. Methodological diversity might also help. Different forms of practice are suited to different forms of research. Behaviorism fits well with quantification; it is possible to operationalize concepts and count behaviors. Interpretive forms of practice (such as psychoanalytic or social 249250 constructionist forms) are better suited to textual approaches that focus on interaction. There is a sympathetic connection between certain kinds of social work and qualitative kinds of data-talk, therapeutic conversation, narratives about experiences with organizations and macro systems (Riessman, 1994).Additional Implications of Korean “Han” Transformation ProcessesOne of the most important implications of the finding of Korean “Han” is how to see mourning and its process related to trauma or tragic experience. The finding of Korean “Han” suggests that “Han”, suffering entangled emotions, can be seen as a new theory of mourning and useful concepts applied to its therapeutic process from the Western perspective as well. One of the results derived from the analysis of “Han” revealed that the core client (a Korean mother) was in the situation where she was keeping on simultaneously crying and laughing together in the time when she spoke about her suffering soul at the personal reflection phase. From a Western perspective, specifically Freudian theory of defense mechanism, it might be considered reaction formation in order to defense self against objective reality that is out there in the world. But From a Korean perspective of “Han” we would not see it as defense mechanism or resistance. Instead, it is seen the highest beauty of “Han.” According to Kyu-tae Lee (1977, 1986, 1987, 1991), the Chinese character “Han” is composed of two characters ( ): Shim ( ), “mind, heart” and yang ( ) which means “to remain in a quiet, still state.” In particular, “Han-pul-li” or disentangling is a celebration of one’s tragedy. Even in the fate of the tragedy, the Korean people show eternal optimism. This is the power and beauty of “Han” (Kim & Choi, 1995). In this sense this crying and laughing is not a negative, passive aspect of reaction formation but rather a powerful aspect of healing self. In the analysis, Mrs. Kim appeared that her core characteristic is one of a deep inner strength that did not want to compromise and live in a world as cruel as the only world she knew: provincial “patriarchal” Korean society where her experiences were related to poverty and 250251 oppression. Her devastating feeling context of place and time was deeply located in poverty in the1960s and 70s of South Korea. But her social construction of subjective experience with poverty has to do more with gender role issue. At the local community in Korea where she was born and grew up until immigrating to America, she saw her mother who worked in limited opportunity to make a living and was treated negatively. Then, the social oppression for her as a woman like her mother was much harder to tolerate anger, frustration, and hopelessness. This study suggests that women’s issue of discriminated social status in the society should be treated seriously and explained closely with child issue of abuse in the family. Social workers must strive to alter the conditions that limit social progress for the minority groups, including women. The problem of children, women, and families in the minority group can never be divorced from the problems of the communities in which they live. Social workers must be able to assess the effects of continuing prejudice and discrimination on the well-being and self-agency of their clients. Women clients should be allowed to have a voice of authorship with her life to see the possibilities to open up new choices in the life journey when one must meet successfully continuing challenge and dilemma. As evidenced in this case study, when the mother’s version of story about her lived life as a woman took a swift up to the expansion of alternative choices for her self and interactions with others, she has been able to put all the parts of her family together in the way that she decided is best. She put her multiple selves with others in the family together in such a way that even the parts of herself and others that seemed least important became valuable. Limitations of the Research One of the limitations of this study is the scope of the analysis of the change process. This study only focused on the mother as a major participant and limits the selected sessions of 1, 6, and 12. For the large amount of transcripts and its interpretation of mass data made it limited to analyze the whole data. The reason for the special choices of sessions 1, 6, and 12 was because 251252 this selection would minimize the bias and reflect the natural flow of change process and because these sessions included the core client’s participation in the treatment process. Another limitation of this research is the complication of Korean language translation into English. For many of Korean nuances in Korean language associated with Korean culture were not reflected in English culture perfectly. For example, when a Korean wife calls her husband, she calls him “Yo-bo” or our father (woo-ri-a-pa) rather than honey. Finally, the study limits only the analysis of a core client’s (mother’s) change process and not including other family members such as father and two daughters. The reason why this study choose the mother as a core client were: (1) the case of mother was referred initially to the FamilyService Center from the school counselor and it reflected a postmodern perspective that fitted the purpose of the study; and (2) the mother was more involved with child beating at home than the father or the maternal grandmother in this beating. Suggestions for Further Research As mentioned above, this study reflected only the results of change process occurred to a core client (mother) at sessions 1, 6, and 12, and the other sessions and other family members including father and two daughters were not included for the data analysis in this study. A further study is needed to examine the rest of 9 sessions and a follow-up session with the mother in order to understand the broader contexts and the dynamics of change process as a whole. It may bring the variation in movement and in relational contexts. Actually in this study, there were various types of interview, including individuals (mother and father), family (father, mother, and two daughters), and siblings (two daughters) therapy. The change in dialogical-relational contexts may impact the nature and process of therapeutic conversation for each individual client, as well as the therapist herself. The study really didn’t take into consideration of the complexity of therapeutic reality. To understand the impact of family inter-subjectivity on individual change process, a further study is suggested. 252253In addition, this study limited only results of change in individual level for the core client. Further study needs to examine other individual family level and sub-system level in the family. It is also suggested that breaking up the material of data, sentence chunk should be taken into cautious consideration. In order to understand the significant role meaning plays in the growth and development of ethnic specific family relationship, the work of coding category should be consistent with client’s ethnic cultural meaning systems and structures, as well as culturally relevant oral narrative structures. It was important that coding categories be revised in order to assess Korean family meanings of the client, Mrs. Kim as her story was more than a voice. It is not only her narrative/story, but her soul and heart to present her experience with Korean’s lived meaning. The contribution of the research was developing a way of understanding the problem of child abuse from a Korean perspective as an ethnic specific point of view. ConclusionThe results of coding analysis, thematic analysis, and cultural significance of Korean “Han” transformation processes as shown in the foregoing chapter showed that the client’s change in explanation and description of physical child abuse problem and a decrease in coercive behavior occurred as follows: 1. Client’s belief system of physical child abuse problem re-related the physical child abuse event in the context of new/different meaning during therapy.2. As a therapist maintains coherence with client’s subjective narratives about the physical child abuse problem, the client’s perceived self will become more positively valued.3. Client’s description of physical child abuse problem shifted from both simple actions and relational pattern to a more encompassing relational pattern during therapy.4. As a fixed meaning of the physical child abuse problem moved toward adaptive meaning, parent client decreased coercive behavior and child client decreased aversive behavior. 253254In addition, therapist’s therapeutic conversational dialogue including responsive listening, maintaining coherence, and asking conversational questions in relational-dialogical process contributed to client’s positive change in therapeutic narratives: 1. As therapy proceeds and therapist became more responsive, client participated more in dialogue and the client’s single, polarized perspective-taking shifted to more multiple, mutual perspective-taking.2. As a therapist maintained coherence with client’s subjective narratives about the physical child abuse problem, the client’s perceived self became more positively valued.3. As a therapist’s conversational questions allowed the client to tell her stories, the client moved more to the elaboration of description/explanation of the physical child abuse problem during therapy. Adding to the above, Korean “Han” transformation processes were studied through the qualitative data analyses addressing therapeutic change processes (Descriptive elaboration are found in Appendix D). 254255APPENDIX A INFORMED CONSENT FORM255256Informed Consent FormIn signing this document, I am giving my consent to participate with Kui-Hee Song in a therapeutic dialogue about the problem of a way of being in relationship with children, as a part of Kui-Hee Song's doctoral dissertation research study. I understand that this discussion will be audiotaped, and hereby give my permission for such recordings. I understand that I will be asked to discuss with Kui-Hee Song my experience of a way of being in relationship with my children, including how we think about, talk with, act with and respond to them and that our discussion may take about three months once a week to complete.I have been told that there are known benefits to this therapeutic dialogue as a clinical research and the possibility of increasing understanding, as in any dialogue, as well as its contribution to contribution to Kui-Hee Song's doctoral dissertation research. I have been told that the knowledge to be gained through this study may enable social workers in practice to provide better service for Korean immigrant families who encounter difficulties in parenting.I have been informed that the discussion is entirely voluntary, and that I can terminate my participation at any time. I have been told that a transcript of the discussion will be prepared from the tape-recording, and that quotations from the discussion may be used without real names in the report of the study, but that no report of this study will ever identify me in any way.I understand that I may contact the researcher at any time should I have any uncomfortable feelings about the discussion or the study. The researcher will contact me approximately one day, one week, and one month after our discussion to ask if I have any concerns regarding the discussion or the study or study by telephone at Kui-Hee Song’s home, (773) 465-1228. I understand that I can not obtain the review of the research for the therapeutic reason. I will receive a copy of this signed consent form.Kui-Hee Song, MA ______Participant's Name as Stated Researcher's Name ______Participant's Signature Date Researcher's Signature Date 256257APPENDIX BCODING SYSTEMS257258CODING SYSTEMSINSTRUCTION FOR NARRATIVE PROCESS CODING SYSTEM UNITS The first step of coding rating system includes having the rater read the therapy session transcript and locate changes in the topics or issues discussed in the session and/or shifts in focus during the elaboration or development of a particular issue or theme. Initially, topic segments were identified when shifts or changes in subject areas (such as family, school, work) occurred in therapy sessions. As our experience with the coding system developed, however, it became clear that the discussion of some subject areas were multifaceted, in which different aspects of one subject or issue were explored in detail. Accordingly, in order to address both forms of topic elaboration, a topic segment is defined as either: a) a description or overview of a specific content area or, b) a detailed elaboration of different facets of a specific content area. In terms of the therapy session discourse, topic segments are interactional units in which may contain verbal and/or non-verbal interchanges between clients and therapist. The length of the individual topic segments may vary both within and across therapy sessions ( for example, see Appendix C). Markers which are often associated with the beginning of a new topic segment include a change in the topic under discussion, a question posed by the therapist and/or a change in grammatical tense or dialogue pace. Conversely, markers often associated with the completion of a topic segment include an affirmation by the therapist that the client was heard (i.e., uhmmm), a prolonged pause in the conversation and/or a summarization of the preceding issue. Once the therapy session transcript has been divided into topic segments, each segment is further subdivided and coded in terms of shifts in narrative process sequences: (1) speech development levels, (2) perspective-taking levels, (3) narrative process sequences, (4) therapist inter-subjectivity categories (including, therapist interactional modes and dialogical-relational process category), and (5) Korean “Han” transformation. 1. CODING FOR CLIENT’S DIALOGIC SPEECH DEVELOPMENT By using a Western concept of dialogical speech development, the process of client development and growth in therapy involves two ways of looking at therapeutic narrative process which will be more appropriate for the understanding of Korean client’s mental processes in the therapy. From a Western perspective of dialogical speech development, five dialogical speech developmental process levels are defined following the integration of Seikkula’s (1993; 1995) speech development theory, including social speech, egocentric speech, and inner speech, with Anderson’s (1997) clinical theory of dialogical conversation, including monologue and dialogue.1. Monologic Speech. Speaks about the already spoken and already seen world; deals with reality, which has already been spoken of, for the purpose, for instance, of solving family problems and conflicts (Seikkula, 1995); involves control through the monopoly of a single perspective in terms of which a domain is defined (Anderson, 1997; Braten, 1987); denies the existence outside itself of another consciousness with equal rights and equal responsibilities, another I with equal rights (thou); is finalized and deaf to the other’s response, and does not expect it or does not acknowledge in it any decisive force (Anderson, 1997); there is no “crossing of perspectives” (Anderson, 1997; Braten, 1984);it has the quality of emotional insistence which acts as blinder to other versions of the client’s story; is founded in memory and distanced from current experience (Penn & Frankfurt, 1994). 1-1. Internal Monologue. Speaks about self that is negative and self-accusing/victim and fixed single/first voice. Example: In the therapy session #1, mother said “I am incompetent.” “I have to do it all alone”; “No one helped me.” 1-2. External Monologue. Speaks negatively about others. Example: “My second daughter is similar to my husband in character, and she is so lazy and too dependent on her elder sister.”2582592. Social Speech. Talks about the actual reality which determines the behaviors (Seikkula, 1993). Social speech is the first and the most usual area of language where the client co-ordinates his or her behavior on the basis of another person’s instuction. The meaning of the things and issues at which the client points is produced in interactional process where client’s action engenders a reaction not from the object but from another person. (Vygotsky, 1978; Seikkula, 1993). The meanings of the client’s experience and his or her social network as well as the leanings of incidents described in the word itself are constructed between another person and client.3. Private Speech. Discourses that are constructed between another person and client can obtain the internal, constructive meaning for the psychic of the client. By speaking aloud the client co-ordinates for himself or herself his or her own actions and transfers the co-ordination of behavior which earlier happened in the instructions of the outer world into his or her own psychological structure; takes the task out of the actual context and seeks a solution in his or her thinking (Seikkula, 1993); attempts to search for the alternative selves. 4. Internal Dialogue Vygotsky (1970) sees that both private and inner speech are speech for oneself or dialogue with other selves (Anderson, 1997). Client co-ordinates his or her behaviors, by putting his or her own thoughts into words; search for the unsiad/hidden-voices or perspective; (Anderson, 1997; Seikkula, 1993); the issue discussed in the social interaction can be detached from their context in such a way that generalizing discourse becomes possible and so the issue gets its equivalent in the dialogue of the inner language; it is in the dialogically agitated, tension-filled environment of alien words, values, and accents (Seikkula, 1993); changes in the client’s conversation with himself or herself evolve with a fundamental question about identity, from “Who am I” to “How do I want to be with others?” and/or to “How do I want them to be with me?” (Dialogical experience of relationship with self); there are many subjects and compassion (coexistence of many positive self-voices for many contexts). It also includes the quality of participant’s attitude, attentiveness and unintrusiveness appeared in the therapist’s observation notes in interview transcripts. For example, silent conversations within participants, between therapist and client and/or between client and family are indicative of internal dialogue. 5. External Dialogue Dialogue refers to thinking and communication that allows for creativity and consciousness through the complementary autonomy of participant’s perspectives (Braten, 1987, p.10). Client engages in dialogue with each others. In dialogue client’s understanding comes to fruition in the response in the therapy; client uses the word in a way that can participate in a dialogue with an already existing network of other words in the shaping of observation (Seikkula, 1993); client involves conversation that occurs to all people present spontaneously joining in the telling of the story, adding to and expanding on it rather than correcting the other’s version (Anderson, 1997, p.128); client speaks in a way that orientates and fits his/her words to the actual listener in the therapy (Seikkula, 1993); client participate in the creation of expansion of possible choices;2. CODING FOR CLIENT PERSPECTIVE-TAKING DEVELOPMENT Four developmental levels of perspective-taking index are defined in modification of Selman and Byrne (1974), which fits for more research purpose.1. Single, Polarized Perspective-Taking, which involves the recognition of the fixed and constricting narratives to provide an articulation of the stance toward the world. For example, I never thought of my husband as my husband and I always treated him as the mother treats her son. It also involves negative or self-accusing voices, for example, “I am unhappy wife. ”;“My daughter was told in school that she didn’t smile at all.”2. Subjective Perspective-Taking, which involves the acknowledgment of the existence of alternative subjective points of view, but without a synthesis into a personal viewpoint. For example, Mother said that maybe my daughter also may be feeling proud of herself.2592603. Self-Reflective Perspective-Taking, which involves a more sophisticated capacity to take a second person social perspective on the self’s actions and intentions. Silent listening also is indicative of this category. For example, now I [mother] am very sorry that I can not give a little more attention to my second daughter. 4. Multiple, Mutual Perspective-Taking, which involves the adoption of a third person perspective or new institutional by the client. For example, “My cousin couple is very considerate of their children and they talk very softly with each other. And all of their children have grown up very well among relatives.”; “I[mother]was very surprised by her own thinking about the concern with study when I heard first about her talking.”.3. CODING FOR CLINET NARRATIVE PROCESS SEQUENCES The three categories of narrative process modes -internal, external/event, reflexive - are coded following Angus and Hardtke’s (1994) Narrative Processes Coding System (NPCS), which are mutually exclusive and address psycholinguistic dimensions of the therapy discourse. And also Mode of Involvement and Temporal Orientation distinctions are made within this modes following part of Stuttgart Interactional Category System/2 as follows: As a general rule narrative process modes are no less than 4 complete sentences. A. Narrative Process Modes 1.Focus on the External/Event: When the client and/or therapist provides a descriptive or redescriptive elaboration of an event or issue (actual or imagined; past, present or future), the narrative process mode is coded as External/Event. Two distinctions are made within this process mode. Event sequences may contain a general overview of an event or issue, or it highlights a specific incident or event (temporal orientation and affect which are addressed in detail) as follows. 2.Focus on the Internal: Internal modes are identified when client and/or therapist provides descriptive or redescriptive elaboration of subjective experiences, feeling states and/or affective reactions in the therapy session discourse. It is most often descriptions or redescriptions of how clients, significant others and/or the therapist feels in relation circulmstances occurring in the client’s lives. Markers which are often associated with the identification of an internal mode include a predominance of affect-laden phrases (e.g., I always feel down in front of my mother–in-law.), the use of the word, “feel” or other synonyms, and/or the presence of prolonged pauses and sighs. 3.Focus on the Reflective: Reflective sequences are identified when the therapy session discourse focuses on the reflexive or interpretative analysis of event descriptions or redescription and/or description or redescription of subjective experiences. In these sequences clients and therapist actively focus on achieving a meaningful understanding of feelings and actions which relate to the self and/or significant others. Reflective sequences may entail an active examination or questioning of previous actions or thought patterns, desires, wishes or needs. In addition the four involvement modes and temporal orientation distinctions are made wihtin narrative process modes as follows:B. Involvement Modes 1. Positive Affect/Evaluation: A feeling/evaluation is expressed/given and it is positive (e.g., “I disentangled the entangled emotions.”). 2. Positive & Negative Affect/Evaluation: A feeling/evaluation is expressed/given and it is both positive and negative (e.g., “She is just in the prime of fooling around. But as ages of seven goes by , she would be all right,”). 3. Negative Affect/Evaluation: A feeling/evaluation is expressed/given and it is negative (e.g., when Christina (the second daughter) didn’t follow the direction I made, I was out of self-controlled.”). 4. Neutral description: A description is given and it is neutral (e.g., “My husband took the medication seven mg.”). 5. Minimal Display of Involvement: minimal verbal and/or vocal display is presented (e.g., “Mhm”, Yeah, Ah”).C. Temporal Orientation 2602611. Distant Past Orientation: The client talks about events or issues in the distant past (e.g., “In my childhood, I was very hopeless.”). 2. Recent Past Orientation: The client and/or therapist talks about events or issues in the past (e.g., “When the investigator came to my home, I already began a new business and I was too busy to meet her.”). 3. Past & Present Orientation : The client and/or therapist talks about events or issues in both the past and the present (e.g., “I remembered our living was so tough. But now I am so thankful to you, mother.”). 4. Present Orientation: The client and/or therapist talks about the events or issues in the present (e.g., “Now the most difficult situation is over.”). 5. Past / Present /Future o rientation: The client and/or therapist talks about events or issues in the past, the present, and the future (e.g., I tried hard to live by the love of God…..This is what I thought, what I think , and what I will think.”). 6. Future Orientation: The client and/or therapist talks about events or issues in the future (e.g., “I am going to make great effort to make my family better”; “I am going to treat my children with affection”). 4. CODING FOR THERAPIST “INTER-SUBJECTIVITY” Coding for therapist inter-subjectivity category involves two procedures of interactional category and dialogical-relational process aspects. A. Therapist Interactional Modes Category Coding of therapist interactional category is made partially following Stuttgurt Interactional Category System/2. This includes speech acts and speech regulation in integration of other aspects of speech acts in a way that fits into both theoretical concepts used for the study and therapy conversation unique to between Korean client and therapist. 1. Asking 1). Questioning: Therapist formulates a question or series of questions (e.g., “May I call you Mrs. Kim.”). 2). Exploring: Therapist sifts through client’s experience. (“I wonder what kind of conversation do you have with school teachers recently?”).2. Telling 1). Initiating: Therapist introduces new focus, topic or perspective. (Let’s share some ideas about what your mother experienced as a very young, little girl.”) 2). Directing: Therapist makes explicit demands of client as the conversational partner (e.g., “I think that now your husband is giving you something.”). 3). Continuing: Therapist addresses the conversational topic without explicitly shaping its direction. (e.g., “Couple harmony would be a key point for child rearing in the family” is responded to be “It is harmony between couple). 4). Affirming: Therapist explicitly reinforces and/or generally supports the preceding utterance. (e.g., ”And so I like to treat my children with a full of affection” is responded to by “O.K., O.K., It is a good point.”). 5). Disaffirming: Therapist explicitly negates, ignores, and/or generally does not support the preceding utterance (e.g., “I told her ten times that Jesus can do what I can not do for you and so talk to the God and prayer to the God” is responded to by “So what you see you can not do anything for your daughter means that you make your mind not to do anything for her? (smiling)”). 6). Advising: Therapist gives guidance, instruction, or advice (e.g., “Christina and Lisa should spend ten minutes once a month together and talk with each other only about yourselves”). 7). Fantasizing: The therapist refers to imagined persons, or things (e.g., “What if you were a mother” or “what if you were born in economically difficult family”). 8). Interpreting: The therapist applies concepts to understand client’s experience (e.g., “ The hope you had in the childhood seems centered around rescuing your mother and as the result rescuing yourself.”). 2612629). Informing: The therapist provides information (e.g., because the school is a public school there is a social worker.”). 10).Disclosing: Therapist reveals personal or private information (e.g., I would like to share with you about what I learned about your family from the school social worker.”). 11).Reflecting: Therapist mirrors or repeats client’s previous verbalizations(e.g., “now my husband does not angry at me like before when I came to somewhere else is responded to by “Ah! Now, both of you trust each other”.).3. Listening 1). Silence: Therapist pauses around two seconds or longer. 2). Minimal Display of Involvement: Therapist engages in minimal verbal and/or vocal display is presented. (e.g., “Mhm” or “Oh”). B. Coding for Therapist Dialogical-Relational Process as Not-knowing Coding for therapist dialogical-relational process is based on Anderson’s and Goolishian’s (1992) concept of not-knowing. A cornerstone of the dialogical conversation and the collaborative narrative relationship is the concept of not-knowing (Anderson, 1990; Anderson & Goolishian, 1988, 1992; Goolishian & Anderson, 1987, 1990; Anderson, 1997). Not-knowing is critical to the embedded assumption that the dialogical creation of meaning is always an intersubjective process (Anderson, 1997). The several intertwined features related to not-knowing characterize a therapist who engages in dialogical conversation and collaborative relationship as follows:1. Responsive-Active Listening The not-knowing position-similar to Burner’s (1990) “narrative posture”-suggests an expertise that is limited to the process of therapy rather than to the content (diagnosis) and change (treatment) of pathological structure of the client’s story. Thus a therapist would not be driven by a search for the truth, but by a need to understand. Responsive –active listening-hearing invites clients to tell what it is like for them, what are their inner concerns. Therapist acts responsively into a situation, doing what it calls for (Shotter, 1995). To help a story be sharable a therapist plunges into a client’s world and show an interest in that client’s view of the problem, its cause, its location, and its solution. Equally important, a therapist learns a client’s expectations of therapy and therapist. This listening posture and manner involve showing respect for, having humility toward, and believing that what a client has to say is worth hearing. It involves attending considerately, showing that a therapist values a client’s knowledge about his or her pain, misery, or dilemma. The therapist gives as much room and time for a client’s story as necessary, and yes, at times, without interrupting.2. Maintain Coherence A therapist creates and safeguards room for a client’s first-person narrative. It involves working within a client’s reality-his or her language, vocabulary, and metaphor-about the problem and its imagined solutions. Maintaining coherence allows room for the client’s familiar experiences and descriptions. The therapist simply becomes only “ a part of a circular interactive system” (Gadamer, 1988), the dialogical process through which interpretation begins with the therapist’s preconceptions based on her prior experience. Therapist uses cooperative and collective language: words, phrases, and sentences that tend to invite the client into conversation and that tend to include/refer to all involved. This signals a talking with rather than to or about. Therapist stays close to the understanding of the moment, works within and slowly outside that parameter, and makes only small shifts in the conversation. In addition, therapist does stay in sync with or match client’s rhythm, running side-by-side with a client. Therapist does not expect too much of a client; does not express disapproval when the client fails to comply with therapist’s requests such as homework assignments or advice. 3. Asking Conversational Questions262263Because a not-knowing position enables a therapist to express interest and curiosity in a client, questions from this position are more likely to come from inside rather than outside the local conversation. Questions from this position help a client tell, clarify, and expand on a story; open up new avenues and explore what is known or not-known; they help a therapist learn about and avoid misconceptions of the said and the not-yet- said. Each question leads to an elaboration of descriptions and explanation; each question leads to another question. 5. CODING FOR CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE OF “HAN” TRANSFORMATION Two reasons for using a Korean cultural perspective of “Han”, lamentation (entangled emotions provoked by tragic experiences) are adequate linguistic formulation and the way of theory for the understanding of the part of therapeutic narrative change in new relationship meaning and action. First is because therapy consists in us gaining access to a language within which we can account to ourselves for ourselves (Shotter, 1994). Korean parents (clients) under the study appeared to connect themselves between elements of their past with Korean collective concept of Han, as well as its related concepts of Won (hatred), Chong (affection) that future projects will reveal as unknown to them. Second is the way of theory, the project of individual researcher which enhances client voices. I would like to follow the way of theory formulating dialogically double framework to function as a broad container for all such events, thus to create interpretive space in a way that allows client voices. Four stages of Korean “Han” transformation experience are defined by modifying Kim & Choi’s (1994, 1995) conceptual framework for analyzing “han” episode as follow: 1. Fermenting or “Sak-hee-ki” “Chong” (Affection)is paralyzed. Client is transforming the raw emotions of grudge (“Won”), angry, fury, frustration, vengeance, and outrage that cannot be overtly expressed or resolved and coagulate in the mind to socially acceptable forms of emotions. Client fatally accept his or her tragic events or situations. Client evaluates the tragic experiences of the past life negatively; expresses a complex emotional and cognitive conditions, including helplessness, hopelessness, loneliness, sorrow, emptiness, suffering or bitterness, hurting, sadness, pity or self-pity, empathy, hate, deprivation, and remorse; comes to understand that he or she is blame for his or her fate and for his or her personal tragedies or understands the depth of his or her personal suffering. Example: Now I cannot speak about how much I was in the conflict with myself…[silence][voice change to low and slow][continuing tears].2. Reflecting or “Neuk-deul-li” Client’s raw emotions are now transformed to culturally or socially acceptable expressions. On one hand client accepts his or her tragic fate, but one the other hand, the client refuses to accept the cruel fact that he or she alone must bear the burden of the tragedy, by speaking in behalf of himself or herself; protests against the fate; individually client tries to reflect upon his or her personal tragedy and develop a detached view of himself or herself and his or her life; in particular, the emotional venom of “won”(grudge)is transformed into the detached tears of “han”; in such a situation, both crying and/or laughing are expressed. Example: Mother and father come to the individual therapy each 8 sessions and 2 sessions. Example: Client reads aloud the letter she wrote before the family and therapist in the therapy.3. Disentangling or “Han-pul-li” Now client’s personal entangled feelings of “han” becomes public, released, communicated, shared, and accepted. Other people who have similar experienced “han” personally, can empathize with the client; client who realize that they share a common fate with each other are bound together in full of “Chong” (Affection); sorrow and grief are turned into “Shin-pa-ram” (excitement) or “Sin-myung” (euphoria) appears; full of “Chong” (affection) is over-flowing. Client distances herself from her own tragedy; client can be released an unspeakable mental anguish or grief from his or her self-imposed prison by letting his or her clotted emotions evaporate; client has companions who can provide consolation and help to enhance his or her self-dignity. There is joy in sharing and accepting each other’s “Han” emotions and as a result a sense of communion is fostered; there a strong optimistic theme evolves in the experience of “Han”; client can easily relate to the sorrows or suffering of others and easily forgive the mistakes of others.263264Example: The family, including mother, father, and two daughters, gathered together in a family meeting session; Client read aloud the letter she wrote while other listen silently, reply with applause, shared and discussed significant suffering life experiences with each other, including husband, children, and therapist in the therapy; The family shared their understanding of personal tragedy and developed a sense of communion with each other.4. Mind-Emptying or “Ma-eum-bi-eun-da” Client represents a leap from the previous reflective processes. Client realizes the meaning of her suffering; reaches a level of enlightenment; becomes completely calm, tranquil, and serene or finds peace, tranquility, and serenity in herself and in her life; disengages herself from the web of life and their lives are put into an universal perspective known as the love of God or mother; goes beyond her desires of being the rich and/or revenge; embraces both positive and negative aspects of life as it is. For example, by the six session, the client told therapist that brightness and shadow always exist side by side; I don’t blame anyone else for my life suffering. This category also includes non-verbal behavior appeared in observational notes by therapist. For example, client as a mother appeared to be very cheerful in tranquil since the beginning of the session 12.264265D. APPENDIX DESCRIPTIVE ELABORATION 265266DESCRIPTIVE ELABORATION The following descriptive elaboration is divided into three parts: (1) family relationship meaning, (2) parental caring behavior meaning, and (3) cultural significance of Korean “han” transformation. 1. FAMILY RELATIONSHIP MEANING Theme 1: Entangled Relation (“Han”) First, in the theme of entangled relation, unparented relation domain is a profound domain. Without a doubt, this domain lit a fire of the devastating past memories in her deeper heart. This domain unfolded by addressing the topic of painful experiences in relation to her family of origin, parents, particularly mother- in-law, and her second child. From the very beginning of the first session, Mrs. Kim continued taking pains relating her childhood suffering to the deprived economic/social situation. Under the consequences of severe poverty, she had her parents with herself in a powerless/careless relation. It became the most recurring theme significant to Mrs. Kim in her life stories as a core element of family relationship meaning experiences throughout the therapy. A lack of caring and nurturing from her parents resulted in her forming a lack of security of the lived environment. Furthermore, unparented relation with her own parents was strongly associated with the situation of the powerless parents, especially powerless mother due to not only a severe long-standing deprivation such as lived poverty of her childhood in South Korea but her father’s lack of family caring as a head of household. And this is the circumstance that was one of the most important turning point in her life since she had to decide to marry her husband with whom she didn’t want to be since the first her encounter with him in order to escape from the devastating situation. Marriage to her provided an escape from her stark, cold reality. Under the circumstance of unparented relation, her father’s lack of taking care of the family engendered complication and she was abhorrent to her father at her very young age and until now on. She had a serious need for support, nurture, which remained unfilled. Her eyes were filled with so many tears that she could hardly see the therapist. She decided to get married and sought a dangerous challenge. But the marriage deteriorated. Next, dishonored relation began to evolve around her feeling of betrayed and cheated by husband and in-laws from the beginning of her relation to husband and in-laws through an arranged marriage, as well as her choice of marriage for material need, not for affection or love. This was the unspoken, unsaid dishonor happened to each other in the beginning of forming family relationship. Particularly, a hard led married life for Mrs. Kim has significant family relationship meaning. It’s called “Si-jib-sal-yi”. Si-jib-sal-yi” is an indigenous Korean language to refer to married life in the house of the husband’s parents This word implies the tough married life treated by in-laws toward new coming daughter-in-law, in particular a first daughter- in-law as a the first son’s wife in the extended family. She spoke her bosom by the session 6. Her relationship with mother-in-law was main area. She considered her mother-in-law’s shimjung insincere, then the saying or apology was considered as pinggae (“excuse”). The interpersonal relationship was strained for this outcome. In general, shimjung episodes attempted to affirm the feelings of oneness and woori (“weness”). In traditional Korean culture, a daughter-in-law’s challenge to mother-in-law was considered the seven grounds for divorce (chil-ke-ji-ak)* and the disgrace of the family honor. For Mrs. Kim, the conflict between mother-in-law and daughter-in-law characterized the oppressive family relationship meaning. The major reasons for the conflict were the issues associated with authority and self- respect, child-bearing, and religion. The conflict evolved from the difference between mother-in-law’s traditional value and daughter-in-law’s democratic modern value. But, the relationship between the two stands in the relation of master and servant and top dog and under dog relation. It is characterized that as a daughter-in-law Mrs. Kim hardly challenge the authority of mother-in-law. This became the reason for discomfort relation in the family. This domain also appeared to be a mixture of collectivism. Based on the reasons of conflict between mother-in-law and daughter-in-law, the extended family and immediate family still was undifferentiated. For example, although the Kim family established a separate family, the parents- in-law, especially, mother-in-law involved in daily life and decision-making process in the significant family affairs such as childbirth, religious activity, and financial resource allocation/management. In Korean culture, kinship relation is the primary and imperative principle of social order. Individual status and corresponding behavior is determined by kinship relation. In particular, within the family kinship, only kinship relation determines individual status. In the family, adult men who are the most aged and higher 266267 degree of kinship relation occupied the highest position. Mother-in-law has higher position than daughter- in-law who is less aged and lower degree of kinship relation in the family. Hierarchy is not equal structure, but inequitable one and those who have higher status have more power and authority. When society is organized by hierarchical order associated with sex-age role distinction, individual behavior centered around not horizontal relation but vertical relation. Then relation between mother-in-law and daughter-in- law is considered more important than relationship between husband and wife. Mate selection and directing and supervising over child behavior are all parents’ rights. So mother-in-law plays a very important role in caring in the family. Mother-in-law decides the date when the couple may have sex for a baby. It is not the matter with the two of couple (Choi, Ahn, Ko, & Cho, 1992, p. 699, Caring and Korean culture). Another critical principle of kinship relation is solidarity. This principle characterizes carrying on a family line in Korean culture. In Kinship group, as adult women, mother-in-laws have the primary responsibility to care about significant family affair such as child birth. As mentioned before, mother-in-laws’ caring behaviors involve all the things such as conjugal sex date. One area of dishonored relation characterized parent and child relation in the family. For Mrs. Kim, dishonored relationship between parent and child involved the issues pertaining to daily life and schoolwork for the children, especially the second born daughter. In particular, high education zeal was reflected in schoolwork. Lastly, the domain of violent relation involved her asymmetrical power relation to her husband and parent-in-law. Specifically, this relation happened to her in the very beginning of her married life with in- laws. Family privacy is highly valued in Asian culture. “It is considered inappropriate to discuss family matters outside the family as to do so brings shame to the family” (Wilson, P. 108). Therefore Asian battered women may be reluctant to speak if they are being abuse. They also learn to hide their emotions. They are not supposed to show pain or anger because they will be seen as being immature. As a result, these women will hardly ever express their true feelings or emotions. Asian women are expected to take the blame for a bad family relationship. “Assuming responsibility for the problem is considered virtuous, and readiness for self-blame is particularly valued in women” (Wilson, P.108). The culture is the perseverance and the acceptance of suffering. Women are expected to have such virtues. As for parent-child relation, Mrs. Kim’s parenting decision was based on fear of punishment that was coined with Korean child rearing practice which resulted in relatively tough for small children. In this situation, she and their children had lived in a home where actions spoke louder than words. It was impossible for their children to be controlled by without violence. This will be addressed in detail in the following section of parental coercive behavior change later on. In the violent couple relation, she used the analogy of a tiger cub being brought up a tiger. On another occasion, Mrs. Kim also used the analogy of a woodman and a dryad* which is an indigenous Korean fairy tale. She told therapist that looking back at staying in violent relationship is rather as if she became a woman of dryad who wants to leave her husband to the heaven where she is from, but she couldn’t leave because of the feather she lost in a wood while bathing herself with her friends in the pond at the forest. She pointed out her feelings hurt, betrayed, and stuck in trap. One interesting point is that the in Korean culture, in order to figure out another person’s shimjung, Nun-chi is a necessary social skills that allows individuals to engage in smooth social interactions. Therefore when people is not able to read another person’s shimjung (lack of nun-chi) one is not able to behave appropriately, to predict future of other, and to make a mistake. (Choi, 1992) At this point, Mrs. Kim stated distrusting and violent relationship with her husband. At the above example of the first session, she told that her husband’s inability to read their customers’ shimjung brought failure in marital relationship in doing business together. Koreans place high value on catching nonverbal cues, on reading between the lines, and on hearing between the sounds. Nun-chi is regarded as an important communicative quality in Korean culture, since it is through nun-chi that one understands what is going on without being told. A person without nun-chi is regarded as a crude or unsophisticated person (Yum, 1987, p.80).Theme 2: Multicultural Relation The theme of multicultural relation is another important feature to understand family relationship meaning in Korean immigrant family life. This theme mainly related to several intertwined coding categories: 1) reflecting in “Han” transformation process, 2) private speech, and 3) subjective perspective taking. It is divided into three domains: 1) collective help with self-help relation, 2)authoritarian/hierarchical status with equal/achieved status relation, and 3) advantaged with disadvantaged parental relation. A qualitative elaboration is included.267268Living a commitment to a family relationship expresses a valued image chosen from among infinite possibilities. Family relationship is not limited by geographic space and extends multidimensionally. All of these possibilities unfold within the context of the person’s family life situation and are often synthesized with a continuing commitment to the family of origin a multiple patterns of personal living unfold. When Korean families migrated from Korea to the United States, they experienced the impact of being Korean and living in another country. They lived within two cultures simultaneously. Family language system involves cultural milieu of the place where the client family identified with. Cultural norms and values had played an important role in bringing to light what was acceptable and what is not for her family relationship. First, as for the domain of collective/self-help relation, Mrs. Kim blended the help from extended family with independent endeavor. Particularly financial support and child caring are provided in Korean family. She had to make a living in the devastating condition where the couple hadn’t yet develop harmony in the marriage. It is natural for Mrs. Kim who is a first daughter-in-law as a first immigrant to be given and seek help from the immediate extended family members such as mother, parents-in-law, and sisters-in-law. They helped the family member in need and supported alternative resources available. But this is based on solidarity and reciprocity principles in family caring behavior. (for detail, see more collectivism in the section of child caring behavior meaning) . In particular, as a first daughter-in-law, she played a significant role of “Hyo-boo” in relation to parent-in-law. . “Hyo-boo” is a married woman who fulfils filial piety or filial duty as a daughter-in-law for the best of parents-in-law. It is mutual expectation to support another things in the rainy days. Next, in regard to authoritative/hierarchical with equal/achieved relation, Mrs. Kim first made age and gender distinctions in the family relationships including in-laws relation, couple relation, and parental relation, as well as family of origin. As an oldest daughter, she had to take care of her siblings while her mother worked and her father didn’t stay together in the family. She committed herself to helping her mother to do the household after graduated from high school at the age of seventeen. She supported the education for her siblings. A recurrent theme in her life was the intense conflict between the “Traditional Homemaker Figure” and the “Internal Anti-Traditional Figure.” She struggled with being everything to everybody and seeking to have everything. She spoke of excitement and joy and challenge and accomplishment. But she constantly plagued by exhaustion, worries about her children, exasperation with her spouse who failed to do his fair share in helping with household/business responsibility and raising the children (Levinson, 1996). Furthermore, as a Korean American woman, Mrs. Kim lived with an unconscious self-image of traditional women who suffered under oppressive cultural system for many years. In addition she lived feeling caught in-between the two cultures. She felt she should follow the traditional expectations on the one hand, and the newly acquired westernized modes, on the other. She felt she should assert her and her children’s individual rights and also restrain the same. Eastern culture demands modesty, obedience, conformity, obligation, family relationships, while western culture encourages individualism, assertiveness, materialism, and personal achievement (Lee, 1985). Soon she seemed to succeed in balancing value systems for herself becoming independent individuals, at the same time maintaining warm relationships with family members. She was known for tolerance for diverse cultural elements. She depicted much strength and contribution she made for the family business as well as family life. Over the sessions, expectations for the various roles in the family began to change from those of the traditional male-oriented family with the present access to economic power of the client, Mrs. Kim. Gender-role and parent-child relations were becoming increasingly egalitarian and democratic. The traditional extended-kin-family relation was now rare, but relationships with the parents-in-laws were being maintained by the parents as adult-child. She reshaped the family as Korean American immigrant. At the session 6, she became more interdependent, mutual and sought to exist on more equal terms with her husband. Thus Mrs. Kim who actively sought to have a traditional, family centered life tended to seek to establish a more modern life-style. It is safe to conclude that a traditional marriage is no longer viable in her family culture living in United States. Lastly, as far as educational advantage with disadvantage domain, the child education is concerned in Korean immigrant family. The wife took the major role in raising the children in a bilingual world. Normally, they struggled with the children but also tried to help the children. For the Korean American children, there was more exposure to the external English speaking world. The mother gradually realized that she was not able to be the main learning resource for her children. She experienced the cultural, value and education and languages-usage difference with her children. Oftentimes, the children did not know 268269Korean well and the mother did not know English well either as the mother had to assist her children in completing homework and gaining higher school record. As the first generation Korean immigrant woman, she felt left out in the family situation, neither able to communicate with her children on the satisfactory level nor able to help them with their home work due to the language and cultural differences. She may experience the loss of cultural pride, identity crisis, social marginality, and subtle yet existing discrimination and invisibility in society (Lee, 1985). She had a hard time transmitting what she had learned from her own country to her own children. Mrs. Kim who completed her education in Korea, experienced the most frustration over her children, specifically the second child who just stared the first grade and needed more assisting in her study than the first child who was in the 7th grade. The acceptance of the educational disadvantage for their children in America in general and in a rich Chicago suburban in particular having a better school district, the parent was able to realistically assess her social and existential marginality in the United States of America, and this realization did lead to her collective effort to change the situation, such as more active school participation, inter-parents cooperation for positive school system change, development of ethnic consciousness among Koran American parents, and promotion of Korean awareness among majority American school administrators and staffs. As the family involved dramatic living environment and language change in school system and got a new family business started, the Kim family experienced difficulties adjusting new situation which demanded more family conversation time and energy. They experienced immediately the significant impact of being Korean immigrant family and living in another country. However, the alternation of the family-environment relationship was taken into account so that as a family member, Mrs. Kim had more power and control over important areas of her life and her world such as child education. The family endeavor –the struggle for better access to education system for the children-was producing changes in the family as a recent mover in the suburban community. The present position of parents, children and family reflected improvements in the less sensitive and responsive ethnic community, but they were still disadvantaged in some respects. Theme 3: Harmonious Relation The theme, harmonious relation also involves significant family relationship meaning in the Kim family. This theme related to mainly several interrelated coding categories: 1) disentangling in “Han” transformation process, 2) internal dialogue, and 3) self-reflective perspective taking. This harmonious relation theme is divided into three domains: 1) self-disciplined relation, 2) affectionate relation, and 3) synchronous relation. Characteristic descriptions and elaboration are included. The harmonious relation theme evolved as particularly, the theme of entangled relation came to take a new path to transform. This theme was associated with three coding categories: 1) self-reflective perspective taking; 2) Internal dialogue; and 3) disentangling in “Han” transformation process. Mrs. Kim moved focus from considering old herself to reflecting the different family experience that she wanted her family to have with her. First, self-discipline domain developed as she considered middle- way-of -the-road in the family relationship. The middle-way-of-the road was a term that was first emphasized in Korea family by the teaching of Confucius to refer to be moderate in doing something in relation to other. First, self-disciplined relation domain reflects the emphasis on the moral training in the Korean family relationship. In the Confucianism, self-discipline is known as the most solid foundation for becoming a great person. First, practice moral or order one’s life and then manage one’s family. It also involves the another Confucianism’s teaching of middle-way-of-road in Korean family relationship. It refers to be moderate in doing something in relation to other in order to maintain social harmony. So when it comes to go too far, it is considered inappropriate attitude and behavior and bringing the concern or warning in the human relationship. People in the group collectively measure what is allowed or not. Mrs. Kim recognized her lack of self-discipline. She also concerned her husband’s lack of self-control in family relationship. She raised the issue of self-discipline to mange the family affairs including child rearing, couple relation, and other relations with parents-in-laws. This means many in family relationship life. Becoming a good wife and a good parent means the ongoing process of disciple self in relation to other. Couple should not fight against each other before their children; Parents should restrain their emotional expression including both positive and negative; and parents should not talk too much rather than doing things. These are all significant features that characterized the Kim family life. Second, the affectionate relation domain included the most significant component of maternal affection associate with “Chung”. In terms of an ethnic-cultural specific language meaning, the concept of 269270“Chung” is relevant for the understanding of the indigenous Korean Shimjung psychology. “Shimjung psychology is used as an interpersonal schemata to promote positive interpersonal relationship, to provide empathy and sympathy to another person and to resolve interpersonal conflict” (Choi, 1994, p. 13). “Chong” is an essential component of the relational mode in Korea. It is associated with sacrifice, unconditionally, empathy, care, sincerity, shared experience, and common fate. Chong arises from a closely-knit family who spend a long time together and are bound by trust and common fate. Chong does not develop in a rational relationship. Someone without Chung is described as being conditional, selfish, rational, apathetic, self-reliant, independent, and autonomous” (Choi, 1994, p. 33) So family communications are based on Chong rather than rationality. When her child made a mistake, as a mother she critically appraised the situation and communicated her assessment to the child. She articulated the nature of mistake, taught the child to make an alternative appropriate response, and prevented the same behavior from being repeated in the future. The client mother tried to accept, embrace, forbear, or even overlook the mistake. A mother tried to understand from the child’s perspective and empathetically relate her disappointment to the child. In contrast, in individualistic cultures, the rational approach is considered as the most constructive and desirable strategy of communication. For example, regarding a daughter’s letter, the client mother stated she already had written the letter but she just forget to bring it with her. I think she can remember without the letter she wrote with a bright smile toward her and therapist. And after her daughter speak about the content of the letter, Mrs. Kim commented that she almost told what she wrote in the letter with a satisfactory face. The emotional arousal served as a powerful force that encouraged the child to shape her own behavior. In addition, when her daughter was not able to recollect the content of the letter in the therapy, Mrs. Kim assisted her in furthering speaking more what she would want her baby to be. In the relational mode, as a mother Mrs. Kim spoke for the child, on behalf of the child rather than to the child (Choi, 1990). As a Korean mother, Mrs. Kim was very much aware of her children’s reality and did not dissociate herself from it. Children were not perceived as separate beings to interact, to discipline With a metaphor of marital relation, as one whom his mother comforts, so Mrs. Kim comforted her husband to rescue her marriage. Mrs. Kim also demonstrated her compassion and affection toward parents- in-law, including father-in-law and mother -in-law. Interestingly enough, from the indigenous Korean perspective of “Chung”, the reason why she doesn’t leave violent relationship seems to be very abnormal and doesn’t make sense to Western helping professionals at all, but it has culturally relevant meaning for her decision to remain in. From the Western perspective on why a battered woman stay in, there are many reasons including financial considerations and lack of job skills or other resources. And yet for Mrs. Kim these were not the reason to remain in or return to the relationship, but because of “Chung”. It was a quite different story. She felt that she can do anything to earn a living for herself. Moreover, in many cases, the offender threatens death of the victim or children and that will make the family even more concerned and scared at the same time. But the case of Mrs. Kim, her husband didn’t do that way and even he kept on asking her to divorce. So then she tried to make him trust her, by saying in the way: “I can’t divorce and if you want, you get started to make it happen and I will sign the divorce document.” In particular, Mrs. Kim’s affectionate relation with her father came along with forgiveness. She restored affection that was the most sufficient source of all she needed in the family relationships. This domain expanded to merge together with divine love of God associated with the domain of spiritual leadership relation in the theme of spiritual relation. Throughout the therapy, affectionate relation involved Mrs. Kim’s, both as a wife and mother and a daughter. It encompassed the compassionate and empathic connection with her husband, parents-in-law, and children, particularly the second one. Lastly, the domain of synchronous relation includes how Mrs. Kim stayed in sync with her family ‘member’s rhythm. Particularly, as a mother, she learned that she expected too much of her children and expressed disapproval when the children failed to comply with her requests such as housework assignment or advice. There were partially associated with timing. She made the mistake of going along at her own pace and ignoring the child’s, and in doing so, she did not match the child’s rhythm. When it came to synchronous relation, she was like running side-by-side with her family, rather than saying come on you can do it [gesturing motion]. In her experience, like a tortoise, she got there faster by going slower. And she got there where we choose to go rather than where she choose to lead or force a family to follow. Interesting enough, it was observed her patience during the family interview. Patience usually means being tolerant, waiting until the other person had finished so that we can say what we really want to say or believe is true. Flowing with person present, she just was letting the family members present such as husband and two daughter, as well as therapist tell the story at their pace. She was not boring. She was genuinely 270271 immersed in and participating in what another person deemed important. She resonated with Tom Anderson’s (1995) philosophy “ Life is not something you can force, it has to come.” Theme 4: Spiritual Relation The theme of spiritual relation is the most empowering source in the Korean client family. This theme related to mostly several coding categories. Particularly, normal Christian domain related to monologue and single perspective taking. And retribution and spiritual leadership relation related to mind emptying in “Han” transformation process, dialogue and mutual perspective taking. The theme spiritual relation is divided into three domains: 1) normal Christian relation, (judgment/punishment over love); 2) retribution (“Ob-bo”), and 3) spiritual leadership relation or mutually fulfilled relation (love over judgment/punishment). Characteristic descriptions and elaboration are included. Spiritual relation theme is a search for deeper meaning, purpose, and morality in her family life. This spiritual relation is not a denial or abandonment of the self. Rather, it is a transcendence or master and fulfillment of the self in communion with other beings and the Ground of Being, that is, the ultimate and sacred being or reality, that like someone, Mrs. Kim called God (Robbins, Chatterjee, and Canda, 1998, p. 362). Along with Confucianism, Buddhism and Christianity have strongly affected spiritual faith and belief system for Korean people. For Mrs. Kim, this theme unfolded associated mainly with two major spiritual faith backgrounds: Christianity and Buddhism. Christian spiritual truth was more of a strong foundation for her moral decision-making in her vital life situation, including child discipline and marital relationship, and relationship with significant others such as parents, parents-in-law, neighbor. It was linked with both old and new biblical text context. The former occurred more in the first session while the latter evolved more later sessions of 6 and 12 as she made a move to hold a new beginning in her family relationships. First, at the domain of normal Christian relation, the client mother told the stories of religion literally and believed simplistically in the power of symbols. In religious context, the client involved reciprocity: God sees to it that those who follow his laws are rewarded and that those do not are punished. This domain was mainly coined by the old testament biblical text. Judgment and punishment was greatly over love in the family relations, marital relation and parent-child relation. This appeared dominantly evident during the time of the session 1 and the session 6 while it became less critical. During this time, she struggled a lot with the direction she wanted to take when she finally started having a baby. And yet she chose relational hope living by faith in God rather than individual one. She laid any of her burdens down at God’s feet and cast any of her cares. Her pain eased and vanished. For Mrs. Kim, “This was an experience of intense encounter with psychological trauma, that was able to facilitate an opening to transpersonal awareness by breaking the usual sense of identity and world view.” (Robbins, Chatterjee, and Canda, 1998, p. 364) in the midst of oppressive social circumstances such as in- laws’ exploited/harsh treatment and other detrimental life conditions such as poverty. Next, retribution (“Ob-bo”) is indicative of the development of faith as well. “Ob-bo” is a term that was first coined by the teaching of Buddhism in dealing with current existing suffering relationship with self to refer to retribution for the deeds of a former life; Karma effect. Mrs. Kim demonstrated how she attempted to resolve the marital dissatisfaction by thinking through the way of “Ob-bo” as part of her self- transformation. She believed that the suffering relationship with her husband was present due to retribution for the deeds of her previous life (“Ob-bo”). By contrast, spiritual leadership is coined by new biblical text. It seemed clear that love relation came to win a triumph over judgment/punishment relation. It characterized by intellectual detachment from the values of the culture and from the approval of significant other people. The client’s ability to articulate her own values, distinct from those of family such as her husband and mother -in-law, makes her faith an individual-reflective faith. It incorporated both powerful unconscious ideas (such as the power of prayer and the love of God) and rational, conscious values (such as the worth of life compared with that of property). The client mother at this domain had a powerful vision of universal compassion, justice, and love that compels them to live her life. Spiritual leadership relation in the family is the most powerful lasting strength. Divine love of God was key to her Christina life in family relationships that she continued to long for in her life. She found that it was once most effective against encountered problems in her past lived life. By knowing and seeing God through love, this was key to and focus of following all God’ moral laws for Mrs. Kim; God’s love was basis for herself-worth; God’s love can change life’s outcome. Because she loves God and she can love her 271272 families also. This was the victory that overcame the difficulties in life. She built again her family upon divine love of God. On the other hand, she underwent in making transition from an immature Christian to more mature, consummate one who took the will of God and made the outworking practice of loving one another. For Mrs. Kim, love came in the form of deed and truth such as self-love and commitment to demonstrating it in her family relationships, not in word or in tongue such as feeling and talking of love. Her restriction particularly, to children was motivated by love, not by punishment and judgement. Love shed light on her family relationships again. She got back on track with the word of love of God. It was the caring embrace of love. Her spotted past shadow of the cold distance in parental relationship turned out with spotless future, not-yet destroyed future. Now she was able to talk new and be forward, not backward. She mounted up with wings as eagles and renewed her strength. She underwent in making transition from inadequate mode of existence to a better one. It became clear that this domain gradually evolved during the session 6 and by the session 12 it became deepened. By the session 12, Mrs. Kim began to bless the God with a heart of thank, eyes lifted up and a mouth of praise. She demonstrated her spiritual awakening to maturity as a prayer warrior by the session 6. The contrast was so striking that it seemed that she took a big step forward a spiritually mature leader who would want to be in the image of God, the divine Love. For the simple, normal believer, there was a sobering portrayal of judgment. For the spiritual leadership relation, there was the faithful that would be a glorious picture of rich reward-sufficient meanings and purpose for her own life in the world around her. Surprisingly enough, she made a connection between the past, the present and the future in a very consistent way of making meaning of her experiences. Spiritual leadership relation also corresponds to “belief over worry” situation. God’s comfort and courage kept her from sinking away from constant worries in her married life. This spiritual mature also corresponds to the way that she used to choose to walk with like her mother did so: The walk that changed her life from a gloomy view to light of peace, hope, and comfort. The God’s love became a strong tower which was once lost during moments when she was surrounded by difficult situations and overshadowed with despair, angry, and violence. She enabled her to be a rescuer within a yard of problems and witnessed the love of God. The love of God is the equally sufficient everlasting component with the maternal affection (Chong) which is embedded in a Korean cultural strength. Both were able to draw her into growth and maturity. She needed the love of God as much as the love of mother. It really became evident that by doing the will of God, not her own will, Mrs. Kim wanted her children to obey from fear before during sessions 1 and 6, but now be in love by session 12. She appeared to stand her foot upon solid ground. For the client, spiritual relation may progress from a quite simple, self- centered, one-sided perspective to a more complex, altruistic, and multisided view during the sessions 1, 6 and 12. The client, Mrs. Kim as a key member in the family redefined radically her lives after a particular experience in therapy produced a new understanding of human family community. In summary, as Mrs. Kim continued to explore and disclose themes important to her, it became clear that she appeared to experience more of positive human family relationship.2. PARENTAL CARING BEHAVIOR MEANING Six themes pertaining to parental caring behavior meaning are: (1) familism, (2) Collectivism, (3) hierarchism, (4) education, (5) compassion, and (6) leadership. Theme 1: Familism This theme of familism is divided into three domains: 1) child problem is the extension of family problem; 2) family obligation is the solid foundation for child well-being and growth; and 3) parental relation is affected by marital/extended family (in-laws) relations. Elaboration is also included. The theme of familism is the most profound principle of child caring behavior in the Korean client family. Parents’ primary role obligation is to protect and care child to survive and thrive. This overlaps with hierarchism to some extend but warrants a separate treatment. Furthermore, in Korean culture, beliefs in filial duty and decorum in the presence of the parents also indicate this theme. But this study shows that belief in filial duty appeared to be obvious in the relationship between adult-child and parents-in-law in the 272273 theme of multicultural relation. On the other hand, the children’s use of the honorific term in Korean language and respectful attitude toward their parents during the family meeting indicted belief in decorum in the presence of the parents. First, child is small part of bigger family relationship systems. Child is affected by the quality of the relationship between parents and extended family, specifically in the study parents-in-law. Parental behavior often reflected the nature of extended families involvement. Particularly, when it came to daughter-in-law and mother-in-law relation, the family situation became more complicated. Mrs. Kim learned to understand that the quality of her relationship with mother-in-law impacted her relationship with her husband. When she had trouble with her mother-in-law, she had negative feelings and thoughts about herself and husband. It was natural consequence that she was out of control when she hates her husband, her whole married life became lost in the darkness. Last point for consideration is that family obligation is a primary role for parents to bring up children well. Of course extended family’s support is also inclusive of this domain. Mrs. Kim’s strong sense of family role obligation indicated this domain. She lifted up herself to secure the protection of children from hungry that she had though. Theme 2: Collectivism The theme of collectivism includes characteristic description of how Mrs. Kim made use of her family resources available to maintain her parental caring behavior. This theme is divided into two domains: 1) child care is supported by extended family and 2) family financial aids are supported from the extended family. An elaboration is also included. Collectivism provides a powerful support for a profound hopeful view of human family. Korean culture is characterized by a fairly high power distance. Korean culture is often characterized as being an authoritarian culture. Family in a collectivist culture continues to protect children born into the family in exchange for loyalty. As a result, this involves family care from the extended family system as a basic unit of the reciprocity for caring. Family support was the significant external resource to absorb the shock in the Kim’s family like other immigrant families. Specifically, extended family’s support for childcare and financial need promoted that the family still was able to hold them together. On the other hand, the family lacked the notion of privacy, idea of individual right. The theme of collectivism was mixed with familism very closely and together became most evident at the first session. It moved into the theme of compassion with harmony and affection that also began to evolve at the first session and became deepened through sessions 6 and 12. In the theme of collectivism, the domain 4 (Child acre is provided extended family) appeared to have stayed still while the domain 5 appeared to have weakened. All these changes indicated that in the therapy there was the significant erosion of collectivism in the Korean client immigrant family. Theme 3: Hierarchism Hierarchism theme characterized the description about how Mrs. Kim made sense of her parental caring behavior through power distance between parent and child. The theme of hierarchism involved rigid sex and age distinction regard for rank and position in the family relationship that effected parental caring behavior. At that point, parents practiced authority and power. Particularly, father is a single authoritarian figure in the absolute position without any challenge from children. In addition, the older sibling also exercise power over the younger sibling in every day life like parents. Particularly, the oldest daughter is more high position than younger sister. In contrast, even older sister at middle child position has lower power over the younger brother. As a result, Mrs. Kim had to take care of the first child who is a daughter and the last child who is a boy. Then the second child as a girl and younger had less attention from parents. On the other hand, children’s courtesy toward parents indicates their submission to parents and the elderly in the family. For the family meeting session, the children appeared to be very polite toward parents. And they used the honorific term of Korean language when it came to moment to speak to father who didn’t speak English well compared with the mother, Mrs. Kim. Interestingly enough, the theme of hierarchism overlapped with collectivism theme, but it is different in terms of age and sex distinctions in parental caring behavior meaning in the family relationship. This theme incorporated with the themes of compassion and leadership evolved around at the sessions 6 and 12. In this theme of hierarchism, domain 6 (parents practice authority) appeared to have no change at all 273274 while domain 7 and 8 underwent a significant decline by the sessions 6 and 12. As a result, there was a significant reduction in power distance the client family. Theme 4: Education The theme of education characterized the description of education as a significant meaning of parental caring behavior. The biggest impact of Confucianism on Korean culture is due to its emphasis on learning and gaining knowledge. This aspect has led to the establishment of educational systems, and the high motivation for the education that has instilled in the Korean people had led to a very high literacy rate. This dedication to education was based on the Confucian philosophy that once one elevates oneself through the learning of Confucian morals, the family will be in order; as families become better ordered, a the community is cleansed of many vices and better order, and the community is in order and the nation is in order. First, Korean parents strongly believe that child should be taught. It includes informal and formal education for the children. Particularly, family education is considered so important for Korean families. Although they have financial difficulties they often never give up the education for children. They sacrificed themselves for their children’s well being in the future. Having extra curricular study for children indicated this theme. This involved feverish concern on part of parent for educating children, confining children in the house to drill book reading, and eagerness toward getting education. Then when the child was not able to read the book, as the parent Mrs. Kim felt shameful and began to wonder whether or not she was the good mother. It was not a child matter but became a family matter. This could bring shame and dishonor to the family. Next, at the same token, child should be trained harshly at a very young ages. When it came to physical punishment, it should be very painful. Most Korean parents believe that bringing a harsh rod makes children awaken themselves. On the other hand, parents encouraged children to develop the sense of self-responsibility for their action while maintaining children’s dependent relationship with them. At this point, the parents involved the complication. Mrs. Kim who once involved this complication, now balanced the educational goal with children. In the way, she eliminated harsh physical punishment as she found herself to multiply educational attitude and behavior. In summary, in this theme, domain 9 appeared to have no change at all while domain 10 underwent a significant decline by the sessions 6 and 12. As a result, there was a significant reduction in power distance the client family. Theme 5: Compassion The theme of compassion characterized the description of compassion to restore the harmony and affection in the broken relationship between herself as a parent and child in the family. The compassion theme is the most long-standing quality of human life and experience. This stresses the importance of not only tolerance and fair play but also sympathy and generosity in the child caring practice in the context of family relationship. The value of the dignity and worth of the child as a person was mobilized during the therapy. As a caring principle, parents respected the inherent dignity and worth of the child as a person. Parents treated each child in a caring and respectful fashion, mindful of individual child’s developmental differences. As a guiding principle, parents respected and promoted the emotional comfort for child. Parents behave in a self-disciplined manner. The parents promoted child’s responsible self- determination. The parents seek to enhance child’s capacity and opportunity to change and address their own needs. Lastly, shared affection between parents and children is the most enduring value in Korean culture. Enhancing family solidarity in the conversation with her children held a discussion between parents and children, two daughters. The debate was over the question of how our family can be one in the harmony of love together. In addition, Mrs. Kim reciprocated each other’s affection and taking other feeling into account seriously and genuinely. In this theme of compassion, domain 12 didn’t appeared until the session 6 while domains of 13 and 14 underwent a significant increase at the sessions 6 and 12. As a result, there was a significant increase in compassion in the client family. Theme 6: Leadership The theme of leadership characterized the description of the client’s process of taking a leadership position in the child caring in the family relationship. An elaboration is included. The theme of leadership is a significant element of pursuing the new management and direction for the child caring behavior in the family. It is the key to a successful parent-child relationship. First, parents make a living by themselves 274275 with willpower. Willpower is the most empowering strength for the Korean parents who had suffered from a variety of adversities in their lived lives. Parents can be proud of themselves when it came to willpower. They experienced continued future to live with tough realities. Mrs. Kim continued to state herself, “I am hard working person like my mother was.” As she recollected the painful experience at early ages, she was able to hold both shadowy and bright piece in her life. Another point is parents’ shared responsibility for the child rearing. Mrs. Kim learned to understand that she needed a partner in the same ship. It was very hard for her to gear the ship without husband’s co- participation. Her willpower took the shift the focus from independent self to interdependent self/other. As a result, she became more satisfied and confident in child caring behavior. Lastly, the development of leadership theme continued to be an important part of the on-going spiritual effort in the domain of spiritual relation advancement. It happened to Mrs. Kim by the love of and faith in God. The leadership theme suggests that Mrs. Kim was able to draw on her personal experience of suffering in order to deepen her sense of empathy with families in need for help and to search out pathways to the resolution of crises. She demonstrated the significant transformation of herself and family relations in order to become a helper and healer as a family leader. Then, leadership indicated that her pursuit to bring harmony and blessing of divine love to the family must include consideration of the total spiritual community, including immediate and kinship family, as well as the sacred power of God. Her knowing that she was made in God’s image of love and thus share many of his characteristics provided a solid basis for self-other worth. In this theme of leadership, the domain 15 appeared to have remained the same on the continuous basis while domains of 16 and 17 underwent a significant increase at the sessions 6 and 12. 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