<p>Running head: VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY ISSUES IN QUALITATIVE 1</p><p>Validity and Reliability Issues in Qualitative Research</p><p>Monica R. Woods</p><p>University Of Phoenix VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY ISSUES IN QUALITATIVE 2</p><p>Validity and Reliability Issues in Qualitative Research</p><p>Research without rigor is reduced to fictional writing. Therefore, much focus is placed on the reliable and valid methods applied to research studies. Drawing upon the conceptualization of qualitative research and understanding the meaning of validity and reliability would best demonstrate the fundamental role and need of strategies in answering scientific questions and conclusions arrived at about the social world. This too, brings into focus the role of theory as it relates to research with inductive strategies qualitative research offers to correspond between reality and what is represented in the study. Qualitative research encounters issues of validity and reliability due to its definition and the ability to replicate the practice of conducting qualitative research in a manner accepted as valid and reliable. This paper is intended to discuss the validity and reliability of qualitative research that is vital to social research. Due to the flexibility in the design of approaches, one must question whether or not qualitative research can be validated and reliable, appropriately. </p><p>Qualitative Research Defined</p><p>The emergence of philosophical, historical, and disciplinarian influences on qualitative research has placed us in a quandary for offering a simple definition. One way of understanding what qualitative research is is having knowledge of what it is not. Qualitative research is not indicative of numbers, point of view of the researcher, theory tests, structured, generalizing, hard data, or taking place in an artificial setting (Lee, 2014). On the other hand, Creswell (2014) describes qualitative research as the processes where purposeful sampling, collecting open-ended data, text, pictures and figures represent information derived from personal interpretation of observational findings in social research. The problem defining qualitative research stems from the fact that more than one type of qualitative research is identified. For example, Merriam and VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY ISSUES IN QUALITATIVE 3</p><p>Tisdell (2015) describe six qualitative research approaches: (1) basic qualitative research is focused on exploring knowledge in the meaning, understanding, and processes of how an individual makes sense of their experience. Basic qualitative research is generic and interpretive as individuals construct reality through interactions in the social world (Merriam and Tisdell, </p><p>2015). Basic qualitative research techniques are drawn throughout various disciplines. </p><p>Researchers commonly use basic qualitative research in educational studies (Merriam and </p><p>Tisdell, 2015); (2) Phenomenology focuses on the essence or underlying structures of a phenomenon. Phenomenological researcher works to understand the “what” of an individual’s experience, and the “how” to which they experienced the phenomenon (Creswell, 2013). </p><p>Phenomenology intends to create a deep understanding and meaning from collected analyzed data in the similar manner as case study research. Phenomenology research is designed for the researcher desiring to describe the essence of a phenomenon of lived an experience of an individual. Research questions in phenomenology are derived by the researcher’s need for information from participants leading to the outcome (Merriam and Tisdell, 2015); (3) </p><p>Ethnography focuses on the interpretation of the sociocultural aspects of one’s life, (4) Narrative inquiry seeks to analyze the stories of people to understand their experience lived. Narrative design developed from anthropology, history, literature, sociology, sociolinguistic, and educational fields (Creswell, 2014). Narrative researchers collect stories from individuals to tell in form of a biography, autoethnography, historic portrayal, and oral history (Creswell, 2013). </p><p>(5) Grounded theory research focuses on the discovery of theory derived from data of participants who have experienced some process, action, or interaction (Creswell, 2013). Ground theory is said to have evolved as a qualitative approach through the years as a result of work by researchers from Glazer (1967) to Strauss and Corbin (2008). Ground theory is used by VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY ISSUES IN QUALITATIVE 4 researchers when no other theory in literature can explain a particular phenomenon or when there lacks sufficient descriptions of a process or knowledge being investigated (Merriam and Tisdell, </p><p>2015). According to Merriam and Tisdell (2015) grounded theory intends to explain a phenomenon beyond mere descriptions. Grounded theory works to build strong theory from one’s experience, (6) Case study is an in-depth analysis of a bound system or systems. According to Hesse-Biber and Leavy (2011), case studies are used across disciplines and hold influences in areas such as social work, law, health, and education. A case study researcher examines problems where detailed understandings occur from investigating a case or a number of cases. </p><p>Case studies focus on the in-depth descriptive analysis of a particular case or cases. Creswell </p><p>(2013) stresses the importance of contextual materials on hand for accuracy in descriptions of the setting for the case. Researchers should also have a large amount of information about the cases so they are capable of painting an in-depth, accurate picture for readers. A case study research design can be viewed as an interactive process allowing researchers opportunity for a holistic approach for inquiry of more complex phenomenon of real-life (Yazan, 2015).</p><p>Validity and Reliability</p><p>Years of rejecting the reliability and validity in qualitative research has caused a change in the dynamics of ensuring rigor during the process of conducting qualitative research according to Morse, Barrett, Mayan, Olson, and Spiers (2002). Researchers argue that qualitative researchers have a responsibility to employ validity and reliability by interweaving verifiable strategies that guarantee self-correction throughout the process of inquiry (Morse et al., 2002). </p><p>Useful and trustworthy research is that which has communicated through a reliable and valid process demonstrating rigorous evaluation and conscientious evidence throughout the study </p><p>(Roberts, Priest, and Traynor, 2006). VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY ISSUES IN QUALITATIVE 5</p><p>Validity Defined</p><p>Validity in qualitative research is described in a wide variation of terms. Validity is not viewed as an individual, set or versatile concept. However, it can be a grounded concept within a process of intentional methodologies and designs (Golafshani, 2003). Validity in qualitative research can be determined by the degree to which the researcher has measured the phenomenon under study (Roberts et al., 2003). </p><p>Reliability Defined</p><p>Reliability in qualitative research is viewed as the trustworthiness of the researchers procedures and data generation (Roberts et al., 2006). Qualitative research is found to be reliable if the results from the study are replicable under different circumstances (Morse et al., 2002). </p><p>Reliability in qualitative research ensures that researchers have demonstrated caution in collecting and analyzing data within the study (Roberts et al., 2006).</p><p>Strategies for Validity</p><p>Difficulty with validity in qualitative research can emerge from several areas of the research process. For instance, researcher bias can be revealed as selective collection, data recording of interpretation due to researcher preferences or personal perspective. To avoid or limit misinterpretations of research data, reflexivity can be applied (Darawsheh, 2014). </p><p>Reflexivity gives researchers the opportunity to pursue bracketing (to avoid preconceptions from tainting the data) or being aware of any subjective influences on the research process. </p><p>Strategies for Reliability</p><p>As state above, reliability in qualitative research is synonymous to the trustworthiness of the procedures and data generation of the study (Roberts et al., 2006). Demonstrating the truthfulness of the data analyzed and reported in the study should be put in place with the onset VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY ISSUES IN QUALITATIVE 6 of and continue throughout the study. Strategies to increase rigor in qualitative research is centered on the trustworthiness of the data and should be followed throughout the process. </p><p>Strategies for reliability can be addressed by the means if which the researcher uses quality recording devices to record interviews and the detailed manner in which the interviews are transcribed including behaviors unseen by the reader such as pauses and overlapping information (Creswell, 2013). Researchers should establish a practice of external checks for high quality coding (Creswell, 2014). The coding process of the study should be stable and consistent to add to the reliability of data analysis and data handling (Roberts et al., 2006). Researchers increase reliability in qualitative research when bias is overcome and can be reflected in data interpretation by an external audit. Further assurance of reliability is demonstrated by the use of high quality computerized data analysis software, such as NVivo, by strictly following the procedures the program (Roberts et al., 2006).</p><p>Conclusion</p><p>The contrasting paradigm existing between quantitative and qualitative research through validity brings a change in the understanding of traditional definitions from the viewpoint of qualitative researchers of validity and reliability. Morse et al., (2002), Golafshani (2003), </p><p>Roberts et al., (2006), Darawsheh (2014) agree, to some extent, that validity and reliability are of the same concept as trustworthiness, rigor, and quality. Therefore, in order to achieve validity and reliability researchers must place strategies throughout the process of inquiry that limit or eliminate bias and increase the researcher’s truthfulness concerning the phenomenon employing triangulation and reflexivity. Standards of validation and reliability must not only be used to evaluate the findings of a study, but must be used by researchers to ensure that the results of the study are: (1) dependable due to accuracy of data collection, (2) confirmable and can be VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY ISSUES IN QUALITATIVE 7 replicated, (3) trusted and useful in the field, (4) credible due to the care taken during the process, and (5) transferable to a different situation or population. Qualitative research data analysis process can be validated and reliable by researchers using computer data analysis software such as NVivo to ensure an accurate and transparent view of the data throughout study </p><p>(Welsh, 2002). VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY ISSUES IN QUALITATIVE 8</p><p>References</p><p>Creswell, J.W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five </p><p> approaches (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Ltd.</p><p>Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed </p><p> methods approaches (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications</p><p>Golafshani, N. (2003, December). Understanding reliability and validity in </p><p> qualitative research. The Qualitative Report, 8(4), 597-607. </p><p>Retrieved from http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR8-4/golafshani.pdf</p><p>Darawsheh, W. (2014). Reflexivity in research: Promoting rigour, reliability and </p><p> validity in qualitative research. International Journal Of Therapy & </p><p>Rehabilitation, 21(12), 560-568 9p.</p><p>Lee, Y. (2014). Insight for Writing a Qualitative Research Paper. Family & Consumer Sciences </p><p>Research Journal, 43(1), 94-97. doi:10.1111/fcsr.12084</p><p>Merriam, S. B., and Tisdell, E. J. (2016). Qualitative research: A guide to design </p><p> and implementation (4th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.</p><p>Strauss, A., and Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of qualitative research (Vol. 15). Newbury Park, CA: </p><p>Sage.</p><p>Morse, J. M., Barrett, M., Mayan, M., Olson, K., & Spiers, J. (2002). Verification </p><p>Strategies for Establishing Reliability and Validity in Qualitative </p><p>Research. International Journal Of Qualitative Methods, 1(2), 1-19.</p><p>Welsh, E. (2002, May). Dealing with data: Using nvivo in qualitative data </p><p> analysis process. Qualitative Social Research, 3(2). VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY ISSUES IN QUALITATIVE 9</p><p>Retrieved from http://www.qualitative-</p><p> research.net/index.php/fqs/article/view/865/1880#gcit</p><p>Yazan, B. (2015). Three approaches to case study methods in education: Yin, </p><p>Merriam, and Stake. The Qualitative Report, 20(2), 134-152. Retrieved </p><p> from http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR20/2/yazan1.pdf</p>