<p> IMPORT OF REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS TO KWAZULU-NATAL</p><p>RISK ASSESSMENT1</p><p>Section 1: Species details</p><p>1 Species a) Common name: Corn snake, red rat snake b) Scientific name: Elaphe guttata guttata (Linnaeus, 1766) c) Family: Colubridae d) Order: Squamata e) Class: Reptilia f) What is the weight range and/or length range of adults? Males: Females: Length: 46 - 112cm, Maximum length: 183cm. Mass: 0.45 – 0.68kg. (Source: http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu, http://www.seaworld.org) g) What is the average lifespan of the animal? Average is 10 years but they are known to live 22 years in captivity. (Source: http://www.anapsid.org, http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu) h) Give a brief description of the appearance of the animal. A long and slender non-venomous snake that is equally at home on the ground or in trees.</p><p>Cornsnakes vary widely in coloration, both within and between populations. Their basic pattern consists of 25 to 38 black-bordered dorsal blotches, with a corresponding number of lateral blotches. The dorsal blotches are usually broader anteriorly. The colour of the dorsal blotches ranges from brown to reddish brown through orange and bright red. The ground colour ranges from silvery grey through bronzy browns to orange and red. The most consistent feature of the cornsnake's pattern is the classis "spearpoint" on the animal's head. Two broad bands from the first dorsal blotch of the nape extend forward onto the head and run to a point between the eyes, with a small, elongate blotch lying just between these bands. The ventral scales are boldly checkered with black squares on white background (see photo, Section 6; http://www.kingsnake.com ). The underside of the tail has 2 black stripes. The pupil is round (http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu ; http://www.klcb.ca ).</p><p>(Source:)</p><p>1 This risk assessment is modified from Bromford, M. 1991. Importing and keeping exotic vertebrates in Australia: criteria for the assessment of risk. Bulletin No. 12, Bureau of Natural Resources, Department of Primary Industries and Energy. Australian Government Publishing Services, Canberra. Import of Reptiles and Amphibians to KwaZulu-Natal Risk assessment i) For what purpose is the import? Dr Wright is a breeder who sells the offspring that he breeds. Being in collaboration with Mr Dennison, he should also be considered a dealer (KZN Wildlife Permits Office). </p><p> j) Is this species already captive in KwaZulu-Natal (e.g. zoo, circus, private collections)? No: Yes: (Source: KZN Wildlife Permits Office) If “yes”, give: (1) details of numbers of animals, and collectors:</p><p>Common in the Province.</p><p>(2) full reasons why the species has to be imported rather than obtained from sources already in KwaZulu-Natal:</p><p>(Source:)</p><p>Species assessed: Elaphe g. guttata Page : 2 Date: 06-Apr-18 Import of Reptiles and Amphibians to KwaZulu-Natal Risk assessment k) Is the species listed as a rare or endangered species anywhere? No: Yes: (Source:) If “yes”, give details: Listed by the State of Florida as Species of Special Concern due to habitat destruction in the lower Florida Keys (http://www.seaworld.org ) Wide spread and fairly common in it's range, many populations are being completely wiped out as the habitat is being replaced by land development. Some populations are being reduced by over collecting from commercial dealers and collectors (http://www.newenglandreptile.com ). Threatened in Illinois (http://www.inhs.uiuc.edu ). l) Does the species have a similar appearance to any species with wild populations in South Africa, which could lead to misidentification? No: Yes: (Source:) If “yes”, specify: m) Are some individuals cryptically marked or drably coloured? No: Yes: (Source:) If “yes”, specify: In spite of bright colouration, the snakes are cryptic in leaf litter and against different soil colours. n) Is the species secretive, crepuscular or nocturnal? No: Yes: (Source: http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu ; http://www.kingsnake.com ) If “yes”, specify: Nocturnal but will be active during the day depending on temperature. o) Can the species harm people if attacked or approached, or through transmission of any diseases or parasites? No: Yes: (Source:) If “yes”, give details and, where applicable, specify if treatment is available in KwaZulu-Natal; also specify all diseases and parasite organisms and methods of transmission: Internal parasites and bacterial infections can be a problem especially with wild caught animals (http://www.newenglandreptile.com ). Due to their reddish-orange coloration, Corn Snakes are often killed because they are mistaken for the copperhead, a venomous species (http://www.wildwnc.org ).</p><p>(Source:)</p><p>Species assessed: Elaphe g. guttata Page : 3 Date: 06-Apr-18 Import of Reptiles and Amphibians to KwaZulu-Natal Risk assessment</p><p>Section 2: Potential for establishment</p><p>2 Distribution a) What is the natural range of the species (attach a copy of distribution map, or list countries)? South-eastern United States from southern New Jersey to Key West Florida, west to the Mississippi River in the vicinity of New Orleans, Louisiana, and north to Utah and Colorado. There exist several disjunct populations in Kentucky (see map, Section 6). (Source: (http://www.newenglandreptile.com ; http://kingsnake.com ). b) Has this species ever established a wild population in South Africa? No: Yes: (Source:) If “no”, go to question 2 (f): c) Where did release or escape from captivity occur?</p><p>(Source:) d) How many individuals escaped or were released?</p><p>(Source:) e) What has been its maximum distribution in South Africa (attach a copy of distribution map, or list Provinces)?</p><p>(Source:) f) Has this species ever established a wild population outside its natural range elsewhere in the world? No: Yes: Unknown: (Source:) If “no”, go to question 3 g) Where did release or escape from captivity occur?</p><p>(Source:) h) How many individuals escaped or were released?</p><p>(Source:) i) What has been its maximum distribution (attach a distribution map, or list countries)?</p><p>(Source:)</p><p>Species assessed: Elaphe g. guttata Page : 4 Date: 06-Apr-18 Import of Reptiles and Amphibians to KwaZulu-Natal Risk assessment</p><p>3 Habitat a) Which of the following natural environments has the species occupied in its past or present range? Tick all relevant environments. ___Tropical rainforest ___Woodland _X_Swamps or reedbeds ___Temperate rainforest ___Bushland ___Lakes or ponds ___Tropical savannah ___Wooded grassland ___River systems _X_Temperate broadleaf _X_Grassland ___Brackish estuaries open forest ___Alpine regions ___Coastal beaches _X_Coniferous forest ___Desert ___Other, specify:</p><p>The Cornsnake frequents upland, terrestrial habitats ranging from pinewood hammocks just above the swamps in Florida to rocky ridges in the Apalachians. It seems to favour relatively dry and exposed habitats throughout its range, particularly in places with subterranean mammal burrows. Its greatest abundance occurs in sandy pinewoods in the south-east USA (http://www.kingsnake.com ). It has a distribution that extends from sea level to 1830m a.s.l. (http://www.zoo.org). (Source: http://flmnh.ufl.edu, http://www.tribalpropagation.com, http://www.zoo.org ) b) Has the species occupied any of the following modified environments or land uses in its past or present range? Tick all relevant environments. ___Plantation forests ___Suburban regions ___Irrigated crops ___Market gardens _X_Buildings ___Dryland crops ___Fruit orchards ___Arid pastures ___Dams ___Vineyards ___Tropical pastures ___Channels ___Cities or towns ___Temperate pastures _X_Other, specify:</p><p>Generally close to human habitation, especially farmland. Agricultural field, residential areas. (Source: http://flmnh.ufl.edu, http://www.geom.umn.edu) c) Do any habitats in KwaZulu-Natal (or South Africa) broadly match those that the species has occupied elsewhere? No: Yes: Partially: (Source:) If “yes” or “partially”, specify: Corn snakes are distributed in a variety of natural habitats from grassland to woodlands and are also common in transformed (modified) environments. This broad habitat tolerance suggests that most habitats in KwaZulu- Natal would match those of its natural habitat.</p><p>(Source:) d) Does the species require access to drinking water? No: Yes: (Source: http://www.anapsid.com) </p><p>Species assessed: Elaphe g. guttata Page : 5 Date: 06-Apr-18 Import of Reptiles and Amphibians to KwaZulu-Natal Risk assessment</p><p>4 Climate a) What are the maximum and minimum temperature tolerances of the species? Max:___°C Min:___°C Not documented. Mean maximum temperatures from weather stations within the distribution of this snake species were in the region of 32 to 33°C. Mean minimum temperatures were variable from –4.2 in Bristol, Tennessee to 9.2°C in Orlando, Florida. The mean minimum temperatures for this snake species can be expected to drop considerably. The two lowest winter temperatures (-4.2°C, Bristol, Tennessee; -3.1°C, Kingsport, Tennessee) were from localities of 464m and 390m above sea level, respectively. Elaphe guttata is distributed as high as 1830m above sea level. (Source: H. Adie, inferred from http://www.worldclimate.com) b) In the hottest part of the species’ present and previously known distribution range, what is the mean maximum temperature of the warmest month? 33.2°C Albany, Georgia</p><p>33.0°C Orlando, Florida (Source: http://www.worldclimate.com ) c) In the coldest part of the species’ present and previously known distribution range, what is the mean minimum temperature of the coolest month? -4.2°C Bristol, Tennessee (Source: http://www.worldclimate.com ) d) Is the species adapted to survive drought or dry season? No: Yes: Partially: Not documented. Elaphe guttata distribution is mesic. (Source:) e) What is the range of annual precipitation over the species’ present and previously known distribution? 1056mm (Bristol, Tennessee) to 1664mm (New Orleans, Louisiana). (Source: http://www.worldclimate.com ) f) Is this mainly summer or winter rainfall, or is it non-seasonal? Summer to non-seasonal. New Orleans receives consistent year round rainfall. Most other sites show a slight Autumn dip in rainfall although they do still receive Autumn and Winter rainfall. (Source: http://www.worldclimate.com ) g) Do any areas of KwaZulu-Natal (or South Africa) have a climate that is broadly suitable for the species? No: Yes: Partially: (Source:) If “yes” or “partially”, specify: Elaphe guttata has a very broad distribution in the south-eastern USA that covers a range of climatic conditions. In addition, the snake species is found from sea level to about 1800m a.s.l. Temperatures vary from sub- tropical to temperate with winter mean minimums ranging from cold to mild. Rainfall is relatively high and ranges from non-seasonal to summer rainfall. Most of KwaZulu-Natal will fall within the climatic conditions experienced by Elaphe guttata in its natural habitat.</p><p>Species assessed: Elaphe g. guttata Page : 6 Date: 06-Apr-18 Import of Reptiles and Amphibians to KwaZulu-Natal Risk assessment</p><p>5 Breeding potential a) At what age can the animal first produce young? 1 – 3 years, usually 18 – 36 months. (Source: http://www.newenglandreptile.com, http://www.zoo.org) b) Is the species a seasonal breeder? No: Yes: Breeds in spring/summer. (Source: http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu) c) Can the species breed at any time of the year if conditions are suitable? No: Yes: Probably not. Captive breeding appears to be more successful when breeders simulate a period of “hibernation” prior to breeding. (Source: http://www.klcb.ca) d) What are the triggers for breeding? Tick all relevant options. ___Day length ___Free water ___Social factors ___Temperature ___Green food ___No research conducted ___Rainfall ___Fat stores ___Other, specify:</p><p>Not documented. (Source:) e) What is the minimum number of fertile adults required to form a breeding group? Tick one option. ___< 10 ___Pregnant female or fertile pair ___< 50 ___Unknown ___> 50</p><p>Not documented. (Source:) f) What is the gestation period? 30 – 50 days gestation (Mattison 1995), 50 – 65 days incubation (http://www.klcb.ca), female abandons eggs (http://www.animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu) (Source: Mattison, C. 1995. The encyclopedia of snakes. Blandford, London). g) What is the clutch or litter size (give mean and range)? 30 – 40 eggs, 7 – 31 eggs (Source: http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu, http://www.klcb.ca) h) How many breeding periods per year in the wild (give range)? Not documented. The species can produce two clutches in captivity. (Source: http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu) i) What is the potential maximum number of young raised by and adult female per year in a favourable environment? Assuming two clutches per breeding season, the animal could produce up to 60 young in a favourable environment. (Source:) j) Are any of the following major causes of mortality in wild populations? Tick one relevant option. ___Predation _X_Human hunting ___Starvation ___Disease, specify: ___Other, specify: Some populations are being reduced by over collecting from commercial dealers and collectors (http://www.newenglandreptile.com ).</p><p>Species assessed: Elaphe g. guttata Page : 7 Date: 06-Apr-18 Import of Reptiles and Amphibians to KwaZulu-Natal Risk assessment</p><p>6 Diet and feeding a) Which of the following items can the species include in its diet? Tick all relevant options. ___Cereal grains ___Flowers or buds _X_Amphibians ___Oilseeds ___Native plants _X_Reptiles ___Weeds or seeds ___Root vegetables ___Fish ___Pasture herbs ___Leaf vegetables ___Carrion ___Pasture grasses ___Garden plants _X_Vertebrate eggs ___Bark _X_Mammals < 1kg ___Aquatic invertebrates ___Leaves (browse) ___Mammals 1-5 kg ___Insects ___Stone fruits ___Mammals > 5kg ___Other land invertebrates ___Tropical fruits ___Waders or waterfowl ___Other food, specify: ___Other fruit _X_Other birds</p><p>Frogs, lizards, snakes, birds, birds eggs, mammals. (Source: Rodríguez-Robles, JA. & de Jesús-Escobar, JM. 1999. Molecular systematics of New World lampropeltinine snakes (Colubridae): implications for biogeography and evolution of food habits. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 68: 355-385.). b) Could these dietary requirements be met in any areas of KwaZulu-Natal (or South Africa)? No: Yes: Partially: (Source:) If “yes” or “partially”, specify: The diet is a cosmopolitan one and will be satisfied in most habitats. c) How would you describe the species’ feeding habits? Tick relevant options. ___Specialist ___Predictable ___Opportunistic _X_Generalist ___Unpredictable</p><p>Elaphe guttata is a constrictor that searches burrows for rodent prey. It is also a skilled climber. (Source: http://www.kingsnake.com) d) Is this species capable of surviving periods of food scarcity? No: Yes: Unknown: (Source:)</p><p>Species assessed: Elaphe g. guttata Page : 8 Date: 06-Apr-18 Import of Reptiles and Amphibians to KwaZulu-Natal Risk assessment</p><p>7 Movements a) Can this species disperse to find more suitable areas if local food or shelter becomes unfavourable? No: Yes: Unknown: Not documented: (Source:) b) Does this species have a tendency to change its dwelling place over time? No: Yes: Unknown: Not documented: (Source:) c) Do surplus animals disperse? No: Yes: Unknown: Not documented: (Source:) d) Is this species migratory? No: Yes: Partially: Unknown: (Source:) 8 Social structure and behaviour a) What social structures are typical Tick relevant options? _X_Solitary ___Territorial ___No research conducted ___Pairs ___Variable social structure ___Groups ___ Other, specify:</p><p>(Source:) b) Is the lifestyle and behaviour of the species variable in different environments? No: Yes: Moderately: Unknown: (Source:) 9 Shelter and nest sites a) What shelter and nest sites can the species use? Label all relevant options (n = nest site, s = shelter site). ___Tree hollow ___Building ___Marsh, swamp, reedbed _sn_Burrow ___Cliff face ___Dam, lake, pond ___Cave ___Particular ground surface, specify: ___Particular vegetation type, specify: _X_Other, specify:</p><p>Shelters under rocks and logs, in trees under bark and in palm fronds. Also known to nest under logs. (Source: http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu, http://www.uga.edu) b) Are these shelter and nest sites available in any area of KwaZulu-Natal (or South Africa)? No: Yes: Partially: (Source:) If “yes” or “partially”, specify: The documented nest and shelter sites are not specialised and will be available in any appropriate habitat.</p><p>Species assessed: Elaphe g. guttata Page : 9 Date: 06-Apr-18 Import of Reptiles and Amphibians to KwaZulu-Natal Risk assessment</p><p>10 Analysis of potential for establishment Could the species establish free-living populations in any areas of KwaZulu-Natal (or South Africa)?</p><p>No: Yes: Possibly: (Source:) If “no”, give a detailed explanation of why not:</p><p>Section 3: Hybridisation potential</p><p>11 Relatedness a) Is the species closely related to any South African native species? No: Yes: (Source:) b) Could this species hybridise with any South African native species? No: Yes: Unknown (Source:) Section 4: Potential for disease transmission</p><p>12 Diseases and parasites a) Is the species susceptible to, or could it transmit any diseases or parasites that can harm other animals? No: Yes: (Source: ) If “yes”, specify all diseases and parasitic organisms, methods of transmission, potential host animals in South Africa, and control measures to prevent transmission. Ophidian paramyxovirus has been isolated in multiple species of rat snakes including Elaphe guttata. Transmission is thought to occur by the expulsion of the virus into the air as droplets from the respiratory system. The virus may persist in water bowls and pools of water for a considerable time. There is a threat of introducing the virus to native snake species because captive snakes are moved all over the world in great numbers. Currently there is no vaccine for protecting snakes against this virus. Ill snakes should be quarantined immediately and treated with appropriate antibiotics (http://www.vetmed.ufl.edu). A similar virus has been identified in pigeons and chickens placing native bird species and the chicken industry at risk (http://www.sidewinder78.tripod.com). This latter report indicated that boids, vipers, milksnakes (Lampropeltis spp.) and Asian Elaphe species were receptive to the virus. North American Elaphe species, of which Elaphe guttata is one, however, did not appear to be infected by the virus. Southern African species reported to have been infected with ophidian paramyxovirus are: puff adder (Bitis arietans), berg adder (Bitis atropos), black mamba (Dendroaspis polylepis). </p><p>Species assessed: Elaphe g. guttata Page : 10 Date: 06-Apr-18 Import of Reptiles and Amphibians to KwaZulu-Natal Risk assessment</p><p>Section 5: Decision model a. Could the species establish wild populations in KwaZulu-Natal? High possibility. Elaphe guttata has a fairly broad habitat tolerance and is commonly found in habitats modified by man. Most of KwaZulu-Natal will fall within the very broad climatic conditions experienced by Elaphe guttata in its natural habitat. b. Could the species hybridise with one or more native species? No. South Africa has no ratsnakes of the genera Elaphe, Gonyosoma, Senticolis or Bogertophis. c. Could the species transmit diseases to native species? High possibility. Elaphe guttata is susceptible to ophidian paramyxovirus. This virus is known to infect at least three native snake species, two of which (puff adder, black mamba) are distributed within the region of KZN that offers suitable habitat to Elaphe guttata. A similar virus has been identified in pigeons and chickens placing native bird species and the chicken industry at risk. d. Final recommendation. Reject import permit application for Elaphe guttata.</p><p>Species assessed: Elaphe g. guttata Page : 11 Date: 06-Apr-18 Import of Reptiles and Amphibians to KwaZulu-Natal Risk assessment</p><p>Section 6: Additional information</p><p>Distribution of Elaphe guttata guttata (http://www.zoo.org) </p><p>Source: http://www.kingsnake.com) Source: http://www.kingsnake.com) </p><p>Species assessed: Elaphe g. guttata Page : 12 Date: 06-Apr-18</p>