<p> Study Guide for Exam 2. Dr. Sullivan.</p><p>Classification and Speciation Review: · homologies · analogies · convergent (parallel) evolution · primitive · derived</p><p>What part does priority play in the naming and classification of newly discovered organisms?</p><p>What is: · systematics? · cladistics?</p><p>Contrast microevolution (alleles in populations) with macroevolution (speciation).</p><p>What is:  the biological species concept?  the ecological species concept?  the recognition species concept?  allopatric speciation?  parapatric speciation?  sympatric speciation?</p><p>Primate Characteristics and Adaptations What are the traits that all primates share with other placental mammals: 1. Bigger brains and longer development  utero development  live birth (viviparous) -> mammary glands (milk feeding)  learning and flexible behavior 2. Dentition: heterodont (general purpose) -> flexible diet 3. Endothermic: internal regulation of (a constant) body temperature -> habitat flexibility</p><p>Review primate adaptations and contrast mammalian features: · generalized limb structure · prehensile hands and feet · generalized dentition -> dental formulas NWM: 2.1.3.3 OWM: 2.1.2.3 · large brain and specific sensory adaptations (vision vs smell) · life history traits: long maturation (affecting learning and behavior) · characteristic cranial anatomy (post-orbital bar and plate; petrosal bulla) · generalized diet (but also dietary specializations in different species) · unique forms of locomotion</p><p>Review the three main ideas about the arboreal adaptation in primates (adaptation to life in the trees): · arboreal hypothesis · visual predation hypothesis · angiosperm hypothesis</p><p>Primate Taxonomy I What is the impact of contemporary genetics on traditional primate classification? Since the 1960s, a number of different biological insights have had an impact on species classification:  primates conventionally divided between Prosimii (lemurs lorises and tarsiers), and Anthropoidea (all monkeys and apes) [bottom of slide].  but tarsiers are biochemically more similar to Anthropoids [although highly derived forms].</p><p>This has lead to an alternative [replacement] classification system:  lemurs and lorises in their own suborder called Strepsirhini  tarsiers, monkeys and apes in a new suborder called Haplorhini</p><p>Tarsiers may represent an evolutionary bridge between the prosimians (Strepsirhine) and the monkeys (Haplorhine)</p><p>Review classification and geographic distribution of: · prosimians (Stresirhine) · the tarsier (Haplorhine) · old world monkeys (Haplorhine) · new world monkeys (Haplorhine)</p><p>What are platyrrhine ("flat nose") and catarrhine ("downward-facing nose")?</p><p>New World Monkey Taxa One superfamily: Ceboidea Four families: [Family 1. Cebidae] [Family 2. Pithecidae] Family 3. Callitrichidae (e.g. marmosets and tamarins) Family 4. Atelidae (e.g. squirrel, howler, spider monkeys)</p><p>Old World Monkey Taxa One family: Cercopithecidae Two subfamilies: 1. Cercopithecines (e.g. baboons, macaques, vervets) 2. Colobines (e.g. colobus, langurs)</p><p>Primate Taxonomy II: Hominoidea (apes and humans) The apes are divided by geographical location: · Asian apes (SE Asia): Gibbons and Orangutan · African apes: Gorilla, Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes, Pan paniscus) H. Sapiens.</p><p>Review the differences between apes and monkeys (i.e. other Haplorhine). </p><p>Know some of the characteristics that are unique to each ape species e.g. Orangutan is a solitary forager (also reviewed in Lecture 15).</p><p>What are the differences between common chimps (Pan troglodytes) and bonobo chimps (Pan paniscus)?</p><p>Primate behavior I. Primate Ecology Review primate ecology. · Ecology: referring to the relationship between an organism and its environment. · What are some habitat variables that affect primate behavior e.g. distribution of foods in a primates home range.</p><p>What is the difference between a field (free range) and a captive study?</p><p>What is a territory, home range, core area?</p><p>Review primate social systems: · One male polygyny · Multimale polygyny -> fission-fusion polygyny · Monogamy · Polyandry · Solitary</p><p>Know examples of primates that belong to different groups e.g. Solitary: Orangutan and some prosimians (Haplorhine)</p><p>Primate Behavior II. Social Behavior</p><p>Primate culture Know some examples of nonhuman primate “culture”. e.g: · potato washing · termite “fishing” · nut cracking · cooperative (group) hunting Who are Kanzi, Washoe, and Koko and what makes them special?:  the ability to engage in non-verbal symbolic communication</p><p>How is aggression an important dynamic in chimpanzee group culture?</p><p>Sexual Selection What is the difference between sexual selection and natural selection? · Inter-sexual selection (selection between sexes within a species e.g. peacock tail feathers) · Intra-sexual selection (selection within one sex e.g. large canines and sexual dimorphism in males competing in a dominance hierarchy)</p><p>Altruism and Kin Selection Natural selection does not predict altruistic (unselfish) behavior in animals e.g. food sharing.</p><p>Review: · Kin Selection · coefficient of relatedness · inclusive fitness</p><p>Review non kin-based altruism (altruism between unrelated individuals)  b > c (the benefits of a behavior are greater than the costs)  “I’ll scratch your back if you scratch mine”</p><p>Main conclusion about kin selection:  altruistic behaviors are not random [in regard to other group members] and usually favor kin.  when altruistic acts occur between non-kin, the benefits of the altruistic behavior will exceed the costs (b>c)</p><p>Reproductive strategies: male and female In primates, the type and degree of parental investment is different for males and females · female investment is limited by the resources in time and energy that a mother can invest in rearing her young. · male reproductive potential/investment is limited by access to receptive females. · male and female interests/strategies are often in conflict.</p><p>What are some examples of sex-differences in reproductive strategies in primates? · male reproductive success is more variable than female reproductive success · infanticide in langur monkeys, howler monkeys, baboons, chimps.</p>