ABSTRACT Title of dissertation: SOCIAL SPACES ENABLING GIRLS’ EDUCATION IN INDIA: AN OUTSIDER’S STUDY Patricia Marie Kewer, Doctor of Philosophy, 2012 Dissertation directed by: Professor Martha E. Geores Department of Geographical Sciences Education is viewed as central to improving the quality of life in developing countries. Indeed, two United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) respectively call for every child worldwide to receive at least a primary education and the elimination of the so-called “gender gap,” favoring boys, at all education levels. India has been striving to meet these MDGs, and has virtually eliminated the gender gap at the primary level. MDG statistics show, though, girls still trailing boys at the secondary level and a much wider tertiary-level gender gap. This research studies, in a spatial context, a purposefully selected group of students--young Indian women who have been challenged not only by gender but also in some additional social, economic, geographical, or other relevant way. Nonetheless, these students are educational success stories. The four study participants all have been schooled in India through at least the undergraduate level and are graduate students in the United States. The research investigates the specific social spaces, and the settings and processes found in or between these spaces, enabling the participants’ educations. The role of patriarchy is also explored. Conducted by an “outsider” American woman, the multiple case study is principally qualitative. Feminism, through a geographical lens, provides the theoretical framework. An extensive questionnaire and in-depth personal interviews have been utilized as the main participant information collection tools. Data collected have been coded into categories used to construct participant education narratives. These narratives then have been analyzed to identify and develop research-related themes for each participant and also cross and collective participant themes. The thematic findings identify a number of educationally enabling social spaces, including home, school, and cyber spaces. Other enabling factors, such as mentors, personal agency, and English language ability are also determined. The research clearly shows the importance of identified social spaces in aiding or hindering the participants’ educations. Often, too, both positive and negative influences were found in the same space. Furthermore, the education space has served as a link between the home space and the professional work space, and the participants’ educations have resulted in spatial, economic, and social mobility. SOCIAL SPACES ENABLING GIRLS’ EDUCATION IN INDIA: AN OUTSIDER’S STUDY by Patricia Marie Kewer Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Maryland, College Park in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 2012 Advisory Committee: Professor Martha E. Geores, Chair Professor Samuel Goward Professor Klaus Hubacek Professor Rajarshi Roy Professor Naijun Zhou © Copyright by Patricia Marie Kewer 2012 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This dissertation would not have been possible without the support and efforts of many individuals, both in the United States and in India. I would like to take this opportunity to acknowledge the major players who have helped me and to thank all the people who assisted me in any way. First of all, my thanks to my Advisory Committee, Professors Samuel Goward, Rajarshi Roy, Naijun Zhou, and Klaus Hubacek. Special thanks is owed to my chair, Professor Martha Geores, who held everything together even when there were significant challenges to overcome. The guidance provided by the impressive group of experts who participated in the dissertation research background interviews (Appendix A) is also gratefully acknowl- edged. I was fortunate indeed to have the opportunity to do these interviews, and it was very kind of all of you to take the time to talk with me. The research had its inception in talking with an Indian doctoral student in the Department of Geographical Sciences at the University of Maryland, Anupam Anand. Anupam, thank you for making sure I had the necessary logistical support in India when traveling there and for all your help and encouragement. I very much thank, too, your network of friends in India for their help, and especially Radhakanta Naik, N.R. Levin, Jaffar Ali, and Yash Raaj. I also must thank Amiya Das, whom I have never actually met in person but who always seemed to be magically behind the scenes to assist me in India. To Dr. Tanya Roy, I truly appreciate your giving me a place to stay in Delhi when others would not during the swine flu epidemic. It has been a wonderful experience ii getting to know everyone at your home. To Manali Baruah and to Dr. Arvind Thomas, I am very grateful to you both for your help during my initial visit to Delhi and since. There are others, too, who have made significant contributions to this research effort. Please know your help was pivotal to this study being completed. Clearly, the research would have been impossible without the remarkable young women who volunteered to be participants. Thank you for your courage in sharing your education stories and I have nothing but the utmost respect for each of you. To Professor Anindita Datta of the University of Delhi, your assistance has been invaluable and my sincere thanks to you for being an important contributor to this study. To fellow student Praveen Noojipady, thank you so much, too, for your perspective on the research. To Professor Marshall Bowen, Distinguished Professor of Geography, Emeritus, University of Mary Washington, you have been such a thoughtful sounding board in my pursuit of this degree. Thank you for this and for all your mentoring over the years. Many thanks, also, to Wilhelmina Johnson and Bob Crossgrove of Geographical Sciences. The help you have given me administratively has been so important. Finally, my family needs to be acknowledged for putting up with all of this. Your considerable contributions and sacrifices in this effort, which you appreciated was very important to me, will always be remembered. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………. ii Table of Contents………………………………………………………………………... iv List of Tables…………………………………………………………………………… vii List of Figures………………………………………………………………………….. viii Chapter 1: Introduction………………………………………………………….……….. 1 1.1: The Research Problem……………………………………...…….………….……. 1 1.2: Purpose of the Research…………………………………………………………... 2 1.3: The Research Questions…………………………………………………...……… 2 1.4: Research Design Overview…….……………………………………....…………. 3 1.5: Expected Outcomes…………………………………...……...…………………… 4 1.6: Importance of the Research………………………………..……………………… 4 1.7: Dissertation Organization…………………………………………………………. 5 Chapter 2: Research Context…………………………………………………………….. 6 2.1: Introduction…………………………………………………….……………….… 6 2.2: The Education Millennium Development Goals…………………………..……… 6 2.3: Patriarchy………………………………………………………………………... 10 2.4: India Demographics…………………………………………………..…………. 18 2.5: Indian Education Context………………………………………………………... 23 Chapter 3: The Research Design………………………………...…………...………… 27 3.1: Theoretical Framework………….……………….…………………………...…. 27 3.1.1: Feminism…………………………….………………………………………. 27 3.1.2: Gender and Space……………………………………………………………. 28 3.2: Research Procedures…………….………………………………………………. 29 3.2.1: Introduction………………..………………………………………………… 29 3.2.2: Positionality………………..………………………………………………… 30 3.2.3: Preliminary Research Work…………………………………………………. 32 3.2.4: The Participant Search Process……………………………………………… 34 3.2.5: Participant Information Collection, Coding, and Analysis……….…………. 36 3.3: Participants’ Home States/Union Territory……………….…………………..…. 40 3.3.1: West Bengal (Participant One)………………………………………………. 40 3.3.2: Tamil Nadu (Participant Two)……………………….……………………… 43 3.3.3: Jharkhand (Participant Three)……………………………….…….………… 44 3.3.4: Delhi (Participant Four)………………………………….…….……………. 45 Chapter 4: The Case Studies…………………………………………………………… 47 4.1: Introduction……………………………………………………………………… 47 4.2: Participant One………………………………….……………………………….. 47 4.2.1: Narrative……………………………………………………………………... 47 iv 4.2.2: Themes……………………………………………………………………… 54 4.2.2.1: The Home Space………………………………………………………. 54 4.2.2.2: The Schooling Environment………………………………………….... 55 4.2.2.3: Social and Geographical Challenges…………………………………... 56 4.2.2.4: Work Spaces…………………………………………………………… 57 4.2.2.5: Personal Agency……………………………………………………….. 57 4.3: Participant Two…………………………………………………………………. 57 4.3.1: Narrative……………………………………………….……………………. 57 4.3.2: Themes……………………………………………………………………… 70 4.3.2.1: The Home Environment……………………………………………….. 70 4.3.2.2: Social Constraints……………….….….……………………….……… 70 4.3.2.3: Geographical Factors………….…….…….…………………………… 71 4.3.2.4: Personal Space and Identity…………………………………………… 72 4.3.2.5: Teachers………………………………………………………………... 72 4.4: Participant Three……….……………………………………….………………. 73 4.4.1: Narrative……………………………………………….……………………. 73 4.4.2: Themes……………………………………………………………………… 85 4.4.2.1: The Home Environment……………………………………………….. 85 4.4.2.2: The School Milieu……………………………………………………... 85 4.4.2.3: Religious Space………….…..………………………………………… 86 4.4.2.4: Transnationalism……...…………………………….………….……… 86 4.4.2.5: Tribal Space……………………………………………………………. 87 4.4.2.6: Embracing Freedom of Movement…………………………………….. 87 4.5: Participant Four……….………………………………..……….………………. 88 4.5.1: Narrative………………………………….………..………………..………. 88 4.5.2: Themes…………………………...…………………………………………