Habit Pattern Errors: Old Habits No Longer Die Hard - Rapid Correction of Habit Pattern

Habit pattern errors: Old habits no longer die hard - Rapid correction of habit pattern errors in drivingRoadwise, the journal of the Australian College of Road Safety2004, Vol 15 (1) pages 19-24By PhD MA BA(Hons) DipT MAPSKeywords: habit pattern errors, error patterns, driving, driving instruction, driving instructors, driver education, driver training, driving habits, transfer, transfer of learning, transfer of training, road safety, safety campaigns, road toll. AbstractDriver educators and trainers try to get it right the first time with their students but invariably end up spending a lot of time trying to correct errors, misconceptions, technique faults and bad habits that somehow develop. Because these errors were not corrected early, and were inadvertently repeated over and over (i.e., practiced), many error patterns are actually learned, habitual and automatic and are then much harder to eradicate. This paper: (1) presents a new explanation for the common observation that although driver education and training programs appear to improve knowledge and skill, this learning do not readily transfer to safer driver behaviour and reduced crashes; and (2) offers a new theory and method for rapidly correcting driver misconceptions and changing habitual automated driving behaviours, thereby improving the effectiveness of driver education and training programs. Habit pattern errors: What's wrong with driver education and training?Experience tells us that old driving habits die hard and many errors defy correction by conventional methods (Smith, 2003). Instances readily come to mind, e.g., Susan typically follows too closely when driving in traffic; Mike always has to be reminded to first look behind before starting to reverse; and John has a bad habit of taking his eyes off the road when talking to his front seat passenger. This limitation of traditional driver education and training programs is apparent in all settings including private, commercial and government. Driver re-training or re-education and various penalty and incentive systems, the typical solutions to these problems, improve things only slowly, if at all. Drivers may appear to pay attention during training and actually practice their new, correct, skills and knowledge over and over. But on the next day or when placed under stressful driving conditions they seem to have forgotten what they have learned and the same old entrenched attitudes, beliefs, misunderstandings and bad driving practices resurface. Although driver education and training programs often improve driver knowledge, skills and attitudes, these gains fail to translate into improved on-road driving behaviour (Smith, 2003). Even where driver behaviour does improve, the improvement is often only temporary or takes a long time to show. The research literature on driver education and training is filled with a bewildering array of explanations of why many education and training programs often fail. Training failure is usually attributed to a host of factors such as poor motivation, lack of skills training, poor quality training, driver attitude, a lack of driving experience, driver misconceptions and so on, most of which are considered to be beyond the educator's and trainer's control.This unhappy record of ineffectiveness negates the demonstrated beneficial effects of driver education and training and puts the industry in an unfavourable light.The well documented inability of conventional driver education and training methods to overcome habitual automated driving faults is even considered by some to set an upper limit on the corrective potential of driver education and training (Harrison, 1997).Attempts over many years to strengthen the impact of driver education and training programs have not had any enduring or substantial effect. People are still injured and killed on the world's roads in huge numbers on a daily basis. There just has to be a better way. Habit pattern errors: The transfer of training problemHere is the core question. If driver education and training has been shown to be effective in improving knowledge, skills and attitudes, why do these gains not show up in improved driver behaviour and reduced crashes? Why do the knowledge and skills that are learned during training and subsequently practised, fail to produce improved driving behaviour? To put this differently, what safety educators and trainers hope to achieve is that the improved knowledge, skills and attitudes that were evident in the training and practice setting will transfer to the on-road, real world, driving setting. This does not normally occur so we have what is known as a "transfer of training problem." Although documented in driver education and training (Lourens, 1992), the transfer of training problem is certainly not restricted to this field. Transfer problems pose an obstacle to learning progress wherever automated skill, knowledge, or behavioural routines are involved, e.g.,  the learning of mathematics (Drucker, McBride, & Wilbur, 1987)  science (Rowell, Dawson, & Lyndon, 1990)  spelling (DeMasters, Crossland, & Hasselbring, 1986)  athletic and sports performance (Hanin, Korjus, Jouste, & Baxter, 2002)  artistic performance (Khan, et al. 1995)  driving a motor vehicle (Lourens, 1992)  working with computers (Zapf, Brodbeck, Frese, Peters & Prumpers, 1992)  speech therapy (Lyndon & Malcolm, 1984)  overuse and sports injuries (Purdam, 1989; Khan, et al. 1995)  postural problems (Gieck, Foreman, & Saliba, 1989)  foreign language learning (Chung-yu, 1976)  management training and organisational change (Newstrom, 1983; West, 1994). The key element in all these situations is that the learner is faced with having to change what he or she already knows. As we shall see later, having to change one's own ways in the face of new and conflicting knowledge, is the root cause of the problem.Often, we do achieve the desired transfer of training but the observed improvements in driver behaviour are only temporary and drivers soon fall back to their old ways. What is both surprising and dismaying is that drivers' conceptual understanding and skills actually do improve during training and they can perform in the new way and can practice it correctly. However, they immediately revert to their old driving behaviour when the trainer's presence is withdrawn, when asked to perform independently or when driving under stressful conditions.When we look at training failure in terms of transfer failure, the central problem becomes one of how to improve transfer from the education and training setting to the demanding and potentially stressful world of on-road driving.However, we still need a plausible explanation for why transfer of training remains a mission critical issue, despite the great variety of quality education and training programs. Habit pattern errors: A learning hazardConsistency of errors in human performance appears to be the rule rather than the exception (Ashlock, 1986; Wilson, 1982). Although a superficial inspection of performance errors may suggest that errors are random, a closer inspection of the errors of individual performers invariably reveals a pattern (DeMasters, Gossland & Hasselbring, 1986).For example, whenever a driver makes an error such as following too closely, it is highly likely that this error will be repeated under similar circumstances. Not only will the driver follow too closely but also he or she will adopt the same following distance almost every time?this distance is both consistent and highly predictable. In other words, following too closely is an example of an entrenched habit pattern. Given the highly automated nature of most driving skills, the prevalence of both good and bad habit patterns in driving is very extensive. Most habit pattern errors are not only consistent, they are also systematic because, unlike random or guesswork attempts, they reveal the existence of an underlying logical, though incorrect, reasoning process (DeMasters, et al. 1986). Much poor driving behaviour is based on misconceptions about driving that are as entrenched, habitual and resistant to correction as the driving behaviours themselves.The progressive development of skilled automated habit patterns is hard-wired into human learning. According to Dodgson (1987), skill development typically follows these four sequential stages:1. Unconscious incompetence (we are unaware of what we don't know) 2. Conscious incompetence (we know what we don't know) 3. Conscious competence (we can do it but only by consciously attending to each component or step of the skill) 4. Unconscious competence (we perform the skill in automatic mode, without conscious attention to each of the steps involved). The human brain automates all skilled routines because this is an efficient way to cope with life's demands. Bargh and Chartrand (1999) explain why."To consciously and willfully regulate one's own behavior, evaluations, decisions, and emotional states requires considerable effort and is relatively slow. Moreover, it appears to require a limited resource that is quickly used up, so conscious self- regulatory acts can only occur sparingly and for a short time. On the other hand, the nonconscious or automatic processes … are unintended, effortless, very fast and many of them can operate at a given time. Most important, they are effortless, continually in gear guiding the individual … through the day. Automatic self-regulation is, if you will, thought lite? One third less effort than regular thinking…. The individual is free … of the burden of their operation." (p. 18)The amazing thing about human learning is not just that we are able to quickly develop automated skilled routines but that this automation itself occurs automatically. All we have to do is practise, i.e., repeat, a skill and soon it becomes an established and habitual routine.A crucial feature of human learning is that whatever we practice will be learned to habit (automated routine) strength. It is therefore just as easy to learn to do something incorrectly, as it is to learn to do it correctly in the first place. All you have to do is repeat an error enough times and it soon develops into a bad habit and is then much harder to correct. This emphasizes the crucial importance for driver education and training of "getting it right the first time."How do habit pattern errors arise? Many habit errors develop when, for some reason, e.g., misinterpreted instructions, poor quality instruction or self-taught efforts, the performer learns to do things wrong and this learned error progresses, through practice, to the autonomous stage of performance (Pyke, 1980). At this point it is no longer under conscious control. Habitual errors are among the most common of all errors, and the most difficult to eradicate. The extreme practical difficulty in eliminating habit errors has led to the belief that eradication attempts should be abandoned in favour of controlling or minimising their consequences (Reason, 1990). Improvements in automotive engineering including inbuilt safety systems such as ABS, stability control, crumple zones and following distance warning systems among others have contributed greatly to safety. However, the fact remains that most vehicle crashes, like other accidents, are still attributable to human factors (Smith 2003).Given the extremely wide prevalence of habit pattern errors in driving and their resistance to correction, why is it that old driving habits and misconceptions die so hard? Habit pattern interferenceThe significance of consistent and persistent errors and misconceptions as obstacles to learning new ideas and learning new ways of doing things, is all too often underestimated (Ausubel, 1968; Baddeley, 1990; Houston, 1991; Lyndon, 2000).Lyndon (1989) has proposed that the observed lack of learning transfer and associated regression to old erroneous ways is due to the well-documented mental mechanism of proactive inhibition. Mental mechanisms that affect learning and memory have been widely studied by psychologists. One of these mechanisms, proactive inhibition (PI), also known as habit pattern interference, is an interference effect on learning and memory produced by, "conflicting associations that are learned prior to the learning of the task to be recalled" (Underwood, 1966, p.564). In other words, if what the person has learned previously is in conflict with the new information or skill he or she is trying to learn, PI is involuntarily activated and interferes with the recall of the new material.Lyndon (1989), in a novel interpretation and synthesis of well researched and accepted psychological learning principles, has extended our understanding of the influence of PI in meaningful learning situations and in habit change, and produced an explanation of why habitual errors in knowledge and skill are so difficult to eradicate. When applied to driver education and training, the influence of proactive habit interference according to Baxter, Lyndon, Dole & Battistutta (in press) goes something like this.1. Given that repetition of a driving behaviour is a sign that learning has occurred, consistent, habitual errors indicate the presence, rather than the absence, of learning. In this case, what the driver knows is how to do it incorrectly. What matters then is not what the driver does not know but what he or she already does know. The first task of the educator and trainer is to help the driver "unlearn" the pre-existing incorrect information or skill, rather than persist with getting the driver to practice the "right" way over and over. 2. When new information or ideas imparted during driver education and training disagree or conflict with what the driver already knows, this conflict generates proactive inhibition (Underwood, 1957, 1966) or habit pattern interference. 3. This interference causes accelerated forgetting (Underwood, 1966) of the new knowledge or skill and within minutes or hours the driver forgets what he or she has learned. This accelerated rate of forgetting is much faster than normal forgetting which may take weeks, months or sometimes years. 4. PI does not prevent learning from occurring, it merely prevents the association of conflicting ideas (Underwood, 1966). Consequently, if there is no conflict between the new and the old, then there is no interference and no barrier to learning. However, a driver's mind is seldom a blank slate and the potential for conflict between the driver's old and new knowledge is typically high. 5. PI does not distinguish between what is "right" and what is "wrong". It protects all prior knowledge and skills from change. Incorrect or unsafe driving habits are preserved just as strongly as are correct, safe driving practices. 6. Performance becomes cue-dependent and the driver reverts to prior behaviour patterns when the trainer's or educator's presence is withdrawn, thus inhibiting transfer of learning to other settings (Postman & Gray, 1977). This ensures that the erroneous knowledge and behaviour continue to resist correction. By a process of psychological interference, then, old learning disables new learning. According to Lyndon, PI and accelerated forgetting are the reasons why old driving habits die hard.Each of us is born with this inbuilt knowledge protection and maintenance system and it serves an important and useful purpose because without it the human mind would be in a constant state of confusion. A person's knowledge base would be forever changing in the face of a constant barrage of new, incoming and frequently conflicting information. However, the existence of this knowledge protection and maintenance system is a two-edged sword, with all prior knowledge, correct as well as incorrect, being protected from change.For drivers, PI therefore has both positive and negative consequences. The ability to respond to driving situations instinctively, immediately, correctly and consistently by automatically activating safe driving habit patterns is a valuable survival skill. However, when the learned habit pattern we bring to bear to a driving situation is incorrect or unsafe then force of habit becomes a clear liability.The level of proactive habit interference each of possesses varies, like all human abilities. We know that some drivers can understand and adopt what they have been taught reasonably quickly, while others seem puzzled or confused and repeatedly fall back to old ways of thinking and doing. The important point for driver educators and trainers is that everyone has at least some level of PI. Consequently, everyone is likely to experience at least some difficulty when trying to change our established ways and ideas. PI is a universal phenomenon in human learning and adaptation and every educator and trainer needs to take its potential effects into account.A key point in the PI explanation of why old habits die hard is the notion that PI is automatically activated whenever the brain detects that new incoming information is different from what has already been learned, stored and automated. In practical terms, conventional, i.e., currently available, methods of driver education and training, inadvertently activate PI and actually make it harder for a person to understand and adopt new information and skills, because these methods do not take habit interference into account. Conventional driver education and training emphasizes practice of the correct knowledge and skill, i.e., repetition or drill. Although practice is an essential and useful element when learning new information and skills, it is far less effective when trying to change pre-existing information or skills. Another important feature of the habit interference process is that it operates at the unconscious level and neither the "teacher" nor the "learner" is aware of the mental interference being generated. The only clues that the brain is in conflict are mental confusion, slowed performance, increased error rate, and reversion to prior behaviour patterns when asked to perform independently or under stress. These are all symptoms of mental interference and are a familiar part of the "adaptation period" to new knowledge. In other words, the adaptation period with all its difficulties is actually symptomatic of interference from PI, and indicates an abnormal, rather than a natural, learning situation. Sadly, we have come to accept these adaptation difficulties as a normal part of human learning. Habit pattern errors: Old Way New Way driver education and trainingThe literature on education and training emphasizes the challenge posed by habit pattern errors and the associated poor transfer of learning, yet offers few practical solutions for dealing with these profound and universal learning obstacles (Bliss, 1995; Smith, 2003, Solomon, 1994). Old Way New Way offers a new perspective on this age-old problem.Lyndon (1989; 2000) has developed an innovative teaching method to greatly reduce or eliminate habit pattern interference and this has profound practical implications for driver education and training. Old Way New Way is a novel synthesis and interpretation of existing and newly emerging cognitive science concepts and principles, including automaticity in behaviour (Bargh & Chartrand, 1999); learned errors (Reason, 1990); the influence of prior learning (Ausubel, 1968); metacognition (Flavell, 1987); and proactive inhibition and accelerated forgetting (Underwood, 1957; 1966).Experimental and quasi-experimental studies and field trials have given consistently positive results with Old Way New Way in the following areas: sport (Hanin et al. 2002)  the correction of misconceptions in mathematics and science education (Baxter & Dole, 1990; Baxter, Lyndon & Dole, 1999; Dawson & Lyndon, 1997; Dole, 1991, 1993, 1999; Henderson, Higgs, Lyndon, Wilkinson, & Yates, 1999; Lyndon, 1989, 2000; Lyndon & Dawson, 1995; Rowell, Dawson, & Lyndon, 1990; Yates & Lyndon, 2004)  in speech therapy (Lyndon & Malcolm, 1984)  in workplace training (Baxter et al. in press; Weaver, Baxter & Lyndon, 2000).Typically, after one successful correction session with Old Way New Way, the learner has an 80% or higher probability of performing in the new way; a 20% or lower probability of performing in the old way; and a 90% probability of self-detecting an old way when it occurs and then self-correcting it. Habit pattern errors: ConclusionOld Way New Way differs from conventional driver education and training methods in the following ways: persistent and consistent driving errors are a sign that learning has occurred, rather than a sign of learning failure or inability to learn habitual errors must be acknowledged and not ignored  the driver must practise differences between the correct and incorrect responses in order to discriminate them, so that habit unlearning and relearning can occur it rapidly transfers the locus of control from external to internal  Old Way New Way is readily incorporated into what driver educators and trainers usually do  it places the emphasis and responsibility on what the learner should do, rather than on what the educator or trainer does  it does not rely on external rewards or reinforcements to produce skill improvement  it is well accepted by learners because it is simple to grasp and use, blameless, and non-manipulatory  it assumes that improvement in performance does not depend on external consequences of the behaviour, e.g., incentives, but instead depends on overcoming proactive inhibition. Although detailed instruction in the Old Way New Way teaching method is beyond the scope of this article, the various steps involved and their rationale have been outlined elsewhere (Baxter, et al. in press; Lyndon, 1989; Lyndon, 2000; Dawson & Lyndon, 1997). Typically, an Old Way New Way protocol involves the steps of error analysis, development of awareness of the incorrect (old) and correct (new) way, progressive discrimination of the old and new way, practice of the new way and follow up.The counter-intuitive nature of Old Way New Way almost always generates PI within intending practitioners. For this reason teachers, coaches, instructors and other change agents can find it extremely difficult to change their own, established ways of teaching, coaching, instructing and treating clients. This works against the long term adoption of Old Way New Way as a generic teaching tool (Hanin, et al. 2002; Lyndon, 2000). A successful transition to and a lasting adoption of the methodology requires the individual to mediate his or her own established ways, a process best undertaken in accredited Old Way New Way training courses. Although a formal evaluation of Old Way New Way in driver education and training has not yet been undertaken, the accumulated evidence to date in conceptual change and in skill correction and development in other related areas suggests that this innovative change methodology may be useful as a generic teaching tool.REFERENCESAshlock, R. B. (1994) Error Patterns in Computation: a semi-programmed approach (6th ed.). New York: Macmillan.Ausubel, D. P. (1968) Educational Psychology: a cognitive view (2nd ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.Baddeley, A. (1990). Human Memory: Theory and Practice. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Bargh, J. A., & Chartrand, T. L. (1999) The unbearable automaticity of being. American Psychologist, 54, pp. 462-479.Baxter, E. 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Habit Pattern Errors: Old Habits No Longer Die Hard - Rapid Correction of Habit Pattern

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