The Gospel of Luke s1

2011THE GOSPEL OFNOTES LUKEFOR ADVANCED LEVEL STUDIES CAMEROON GCE FR. DAVID NKONG FOMANKA SYLLABUS FOR CAMEROON GCE ADVANCED LEVEL RELIGIOUS STUDIES The Subject is available to candidates of any or no religious persuasion.AIMS The aims of this syllabus are:To encourage the disciplined study of The Gospel of Luke (including texts, history traditions, beliefs, practices and philosophy) To introduce students to the ways in which scholars approach The Gospel of Luke and to develop students’ interest in, and critical awareness of, the religious significance of the Gospel. To show the importance, for religious studies, of the cultural, historical and social background to the Third Gospel To introduce students to some of the key issues in religion which are of perennial interest and of present-day concern To widen the knowledge of diverse approaches to received tradition, beliefs and practices. OBJECTIVES Candidates will be assessed on their ability to achieve the following objectives:To convey knowledge and understanding of the material studied in Luke, through the orderly and lucid (articulate, clear) selection and presentation of essential data. To express their understanding of the diverse approaches of critical scholarship to the Gospel of Luke and, in the light of those approaches, to evaluate the religious issues raise by the material. To demonstrate an understanding of the religious, cultural, historical and social background of the Gospel of Luke To demonstrate understanding of the reasons for diversity in personal, social and corporate responses, practices and judgement in religious matters (both at the time Luke’s Gospel was written and in the present day)THE EXAMINATION: Religious studies examination consists of three papers of equal weighting, based on the five sections of the Syllabus. However, the Gospel of Luke features under Paper Three. This paper covers sections 2,3 and 4. It will last for 3 hours. The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level SECTION TWO THE NEW TESTAMENT The Gospel according to Luke Examination QUESTIONS AREA STUDENTS (Questions similar to SECTION MAIN AREAS INVOLVED SHOULD EXPLORE these will be posed)INTRODUCTION TO Who wrote the Gospel THE GOSPEL OF of Luke? LUKE (I) Internal Evidence Students should be From internal Evidence (Candidates should (from the Gospel able to proof from show that the manifest only) both evidence, that traditional view that understanding of the Authorship External Evidence the author of the Luke, a companion of approaches of (from any other Gospel of Luke is a Paul wrote the Third scholars to an Scriptural text or Syrian from Antioch, Gospel is tenable. understanding of other sources Companion of Paul, Discuss the information composition, outside Scripture) Physician and a which may be gained about the author, his aims authorship, date, Gentile and his methods from the purpose.) Prologue of St. Luke's Gospel. Students should be Though Luke writes a able to interpret the personal letter to name Theophilus in a Theophilus his broad context than audience is much personal. They are to wider. Discuss establish from internal A Gospel by a Gentile evidence, language, to Gentiles. To what Theophilus composition, style and extent can this be Audience Gentile purpose that the considered a Gospel to all Gospel is directed to description of Lukan Gentiles. They need to authorship and argue from the Audience universal Discuss the view that characteristic of Luke, the Gospel of Luke is that the Gospel in the first attempt at a meant for all and not biography of Jesus. just for the Gentiles Purpose Luke 1:1-4 The reasons Luke Luke declares that he Theologian himself gives for wants to put down (Evangelist: writing a Gospel must history. Why then is his Writer of the be discernible from work called Good Good news) his own Prologue. News? Historian Considering the Would you consider overall Gospel, Luke more of a candidates must be Theologian than a able to establish the historian? historical character of Examine the the Gospel and assess circumstances which if systematic history led Luke to write a was Luke’s intent or Gospel3 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level Discuss the authorship and purpose of Luke’s Gospel. his evangelical Critically examine the purpose supersedes purpose of Luke’s the historical. Gospel and show its relevance to our society today. Candidates must be able to demonstrate an understanding of the structure of Luke from the point of view of the composition structure and the plot structure. They must be able to show how these two are complementary and help to establish Luke’s purpose and the Theology behind his writing. Candidates must be able to go beyond the Composition Gospel to show how Structure Luke-Acts contain a Structure Plot Structure common structure, Luke-Acts and be able to discuss Discuss how the the section of the Language, structure structure found in the and Style of Luke reveal Gospel in the light of his purpose. the Paschal Mystery: Within Luke therefore, the three stages of the composition structure need to be well understood: the Galilean ministry, the Journey to Jerusalem in which Luke makes the Great Insertion, the Jerusalem events in which Jesus accomplishes his purpose.4 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level Students must show a mastery of the Language of Luke and why it has Hellenistic overtones. This demands a comparative study of Discuss how the the Gospels, clearly Language, structure indicating the and Style of Luke reveal omission and his purpose. inclusions Luke makes Hellenistic Style to his sources, which Language, Style Pauline Style With reference to any justify his gentile bent. two incidents clearly The relationship identify the between Pauline and characteristic style of Lukan language and Luke. style must be understood and must been seen as supportive evidence that these two persons have influence on each other. The candidates must be made to realize how uncertain both The description of the place and date of the Fall of composition is, but Date and Place Jerusalem as a must be able to argue of Composition clue to the date. with scholars The Uncertainty regarding the of Place establishment of an approximate date and place.5 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level The Universalism Candidates should be able to discuss the Discuss any two Characteristi (Gospel for universal character of the Gospel of Luke: characteristics of cs of Luke’s All) How Luke involves all – Jews and non- the Gospel of Gospel Jews alike; they should be able to Luke, illustrating mention the material Luke omits from his your answer with sources and the other Synoptics and reference from mentions that which he includes to the Gospel itself. highlight universalism. His attitude ‘One of the first towards the Jews is crucial here. universalists’ In Candidates must show how he includes what ways would even those who appear contrary to you justify this Christ, as he visits them and calls them to description of conversion, and how the inclusion of the Luke? marginalized must not mean acceptance of the ‘status quo’. Focus too must be made on the 12 and how Jesus even Show how Luke reprimands them to indicate he did not presents Jesus as mean passive inclusion or acceptance. a universal Salvation saviour. Students must demonstrate the ‘Gentiles are also dimension of salvation, those whom Luke open to salvation’ considers as called to salvation (ALL). Discuss how Luke makes this Luke and the assertion a Marginalized Candidates should be able to identify concern. those who belong to the group of the marginalized, showing clearly how Luke ‘A Gospel for the emphasizes Jesus’ love for these. The marginalized’ To theme of the Great Reversal must be what extent does clearly explained and shown as one of this describe the the underlying purpose of Luke. Gospel of Luke? Particular episodes and examples must be highlighted to illustrate and justify Lucan treatment. In this area, Luke’s treatment of hypocrisy and self- righteousness must be clearly perceived and expressed.6 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level The Poor THE POOR: Candidates must be able to versus the discuss this sub-topic of marginalization Rich in a comparative manner. They must ‘Luke favours the display knowledge of how Jesus favours poor yet he does the poor and attacks the rich; Jesus’ not intend to opposition of the rich- accumulation of despise the rich.’ wealth, his counsel on simplicity, his Discuss criticism of hoarding possessions and his praise of the rich who practice detachment and charity, his teaching of God as the sole one who disposes even when man proposes. All these aspects must be illustrated. Jesus’ call on his own followers to examine their attitude towards mammon must be stressed as part of his formation for discipleship. They must display understanding of how Jesus intends his disciples to use mammon or wealth. Lucan peculiarities need to be highlighted regarding the material he includes to stress the issue of poverty and riches. Luke’s mention of certain examples even in the infancy narratives, the teaching on John the Baptist, his sermon on the Plain and the literary devices he employs especially contrast to underscore the teaching on wealth must be well demonstrated. Even when He criticizes the rich, students must be able to justify his reasons for accepting invitations from the rich. The reactions of the rich, the Pharisees or his opponents and those of his disciples to his teaching on poverty and riches are important.7 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level When considering the aspect of women, a ‘In the third Gospel, vivid appreciation of the cultural setting, the women are religious customs and the consideration of favoured.’ To what women at the time of Jesus must be made. extent is this Women Luke’s favour of women must be well tenable? illustrated including his reasons: the reversal of the human condition. The relevance of this topic for today’s world where woman emancipation is a process must be well understood by candidates. In this regard, current debates about the person of Mary can be very significant. Students must display knowledge of how the The Infirm infirm are treated. They must be able to Even the infirm consider the extensive material Luke presents have a place in the regarding the sick and show how the concern saving plan of for the infirm formed part of Jesus program of Jesus.’ How does salvation and one of the areas of controversy Luke present this Jesus had with his opponents that led to his these in his Gospel? being rejected. Illustrate from the The Outcasts The same treatment must be made of the teaching of Christ Non-Jews outcasts, and non-Jews, stressing the how his heart beats (Samaritans, significance of Jesus’ turning towards the for the outcasts Romans etc) outcasts and non-Jews. Candidates must be able to discuss the aspect ‘The Gospel of of prayer under the following headings: Jesus’ Luke is a Gospel of teaching on prayer, Jesus’ example of prayer Prayer and the Holy Gospel of (the many times he is shown praying), the Spirit.’ Illustrate Prayer nature and purpose of prayer (persistence or and indicate the importunacy, the spirit of humility, the significance of this confession of sins, sincerity, vigilance, the statement role of the Holy Spirit and forgiveness of Gospel of the sins). The model prayers including the Our Holy Spirit Father, the various prayer Hymns, the Gloria of the angel, Magnificat or prayer of Mary, Nunc dimitis or prayer of Simeon, the Benedictus or prayer of Zacchariah must be analysed and shown as patterns of prayer. Candidates must be able to discuss how Luke makes the Holy Spirit a special feature of his Gospel, how Luke stresses the work of the Holy Spirit in the ministry and life of Jesus, showing clearly the implication of considering Jesus as the Spirit-bearer. Here, Luke’s modification of his sources that give room for the Holy Spirit must be understood. Gospel of Contrast As a Gospel of contrasts, the students must be Gospel of able to identify the various aspects Luke Mercy contrasts, showing clearly Luke’s purpose in Gospel of contrasting the various elements: Luke’s Hymns attack on Jewish Christians’ strict entry Gospel of requirements made on non-Jews, the issue of Human qualification as sons of Abraham through Sympathy faith, the conditions for election, the regard of Gospel of the Jesus as the fulfilment of the promise of God. Bereaved All the other characteristics must be discussed Gospel of in like manner, paying attention to Lucan Absolute redaction, theme and the relevance of these Renouncement characteristics to present day. Gospel of Joy and Peace8 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level Candidates should be able to move from an etymological definition to the status Discuss the quaestionis. synoptic problem In expounding on the nature of with special the Synoptic problem clear Stating the focus on Luke. demonstration should be made of Synoptic Problem State and the various levels at which this comment on the problem has been identified by The Nature of Synoptic problem scholars e.g. Content, language, the Problem and attempting a redaction, structure, literary INTRODUCTION solution patterns, approaches towards TO THE GOSPEL Demonstrating The Synoptic Jesus and the Jews. These must be OF LUKE (II) the extent to Problem studied from the point of view of Candidates should The Attempted which Biblical both the similarities and the manifest Solutions or scholars have differences. understanding of hypotheses. gone in their the approaches of quest for a Studies regarding the attempted scholars to an The Importance resolution of the solutions must bring the students understanding of of the Problem to apparent to a mastery of the various the characteristics the Study of Luke discrepancies in traditions and hypotheses that of the Synoptics, and to Religious the Synoptics. have been proposed. The paying particular Studies in The Gospel of Student’s personal appraisal of the attention to Luke. general. Luke is a most likely theory must be compilation from solicited for. various sources. The candidates must be able to What are the assess the relevance of such a sources from study to Religious Studies in which Luke general: emphasis here is on the composed his part this plays in historical critical Gospel? scholarship of the Gospels, that is, the influence on exegesis, redaction and form criticism and the quest for the historical Jesus and early Church history.INTRODUCTION The World Candidates must display knowledge TO THE GOSPEL of Jesus The about the political atmosphere at the OF LUKE (III) (Candidates Political time of Christ – the Roman rule, the must display Situation of political expectation of the Jews of a Examine the understandi Jesus’ Time messiah, the individual political relationship Jesus had ng of the rulers, like Herod, Pilate, the issue of with the Political cultural, the historicity of the Gospel of Luke leaders of his time. historical, vis-à-vis the political data Luke How political was religious records. Answers should be supplied Jesus’ programme of and social that assess the political nature of liberation? background Jesus’ ministry: hence, was Jesus a to 1) the life political leader or not? The debatable9 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level and aspects of this question must be well teaching of understood by the candidates. A Jesus 2) the thorough consideration must be thought of made therefore, of Jesus’ the author revolutionary ideas that ran contrary and of the to the conventional wisdom of his Comment on the original The time. There should also be a vivid religious institutions readers of Religious consideration of how Jesus’ activities at the time of Jesus. Luke’s Institutions were regarded by the Political leaders Gospel.) at the Time of his time. of Jesus Synagogue Students studying this area must pay Write a critical essay attention to the nature, origins, on the Jerusalem Temple organization and ordering of worship temple, showing its in the synagogue, showing clearly importance to the how this shaped the ministry of Jesus Gospel story. and the response he encountered. In Evaluate Luke’s use of this light elements such as the Shema the Temple in the quoted by Christ must be highlighted, Third Gospel. his constant preaching in the synagogues. The Temple (See Fr. Joe Awoh’s Sanhedrin book) Students should manifest knowledge of the significance of the To what extent could Temple as a place of worship of the the Sanhedrin be held Jews, and show a clear understanding responsible for the Pharisees of the movement from Temple as death of Jesus? Sadducees place of sacrifice, of God’s presence Scribes to the Temple as Jesus himself. Knowledge therefore must be shown ‘Though Jesus was a of how the Temple was used by the Pharisee, he showed Jews and how Jesus intended that it no bias for or against be used. The identification of the this sect.’ Do you Temple with the Church, the place of agree? the Apostles and Christ as Assess the cornerstone of the Temple etc. controversies Jesus had with the Candidates need to know and Pharisees and the describe the Sanhedrin, its origin, its Scribes in the Third composition, the president of the Gospel. Sanhedrin, its jurisdiction and The Sadducees procedure, since this is important in contested the understanding the stance this body resurrection of the took in the face of the challenging body. What is the ministry of Christ. The various significance of their encounters Christ had with the encounter with Christ Sanhedrin must be illustrated and over this issue in justified especially regarding his trial. Luke’s Gospel? The students should be made to treat Discuss the view that 10 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level the Pharisees, Sadducees and Scribes the traditional separately, indicating the source of Christian view of the the names, the origin of each group, Pharisees lacks any their tenets and how they considered basis. Christ on the one hand, and how Christ considered them. In this light, the various moments Christ encountered these bodies, the controversies they had, the way Luke perceives them.INTRODUCTION The The Candidates must be able to discuss the ‘The Messianic TO THE GOSPEL Themes of Kingdom of theme of the Kingdom and Messiah from kingdom was at OF LUKE (IV) the God the point of view of the central mission of the centre of Gospel of Jesus. The relationship between these two Jewish national Luke themes must be clear: Kingdom of God and hope’ What were Messianic Kingdom. It is important to display the Jewish knowledge of how the Kingdom was expectations of perceived by the Jews, the role of David, the the Kingdom of loss of this Kingdom and how the Jews God and the would regain control of it, the place of moral Messiah? By the renewal in the recovery of the kingdom, the end of the view of the pagan nations vis-à-vis this Gospel of Luke kingdom. The development of this concept were these in history is important in displaying a expectations thorough understanding of the dimensions met? of the Kingdom. Furthermore, the kingdom Examine the as a promised reality, fulfilled, and then a themes of the present reality and the eschatological Gospel of Luke. dimension must be well mastered and expressed by candidates, with all that these imply. ‘Conversion is a major theme that Behind the theme of the Prophet is Jesus’ guarantees the prophetic role. Candidates must be careful in Prophetic distinguishing Jesus’ prophetic mission and that universal Role of of the prophets before him, stressing his character of the Jesus superiority. Under this theme, candidates must Jesus’ program of show they understand the kind of messiah Jesus (Messiah) was going to be: messiah foretold by the salvation’. prophets, anointed with the Spirit, about whom Discuss Jesus declares to be fulfilled in him. In this the ‘In the Gospel of theme of promise and fulfilment must be identified. Jesus’ proclamation of the good news Luke a response must be seen also in the light of his prophetic of faith is the mission, since the messiah was going to be major condition identified in those areas of operation. Students must include the rejection of Jesus, and its to experience the connection to God’s boundless compassion as he liberating power continues to send prophets to a rebellious people. of Lucan Jesus’ There is a pattern of the rejected prophet: Rebellion and Killing of the Prophet – Justify this 11 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level Punishment – Mercy through sending new assertion. prophets – sin and rejection of prophets. In Luke “Luke is the first part of this pattern is found from Luke 1- 23 and from Chapter 24 to Acts we find the interested in second part. Jesus’ relationship with Elijah and presenting Jesus Elisha must be explained. The place of miracles in a prophetic in the overall view of a messiah must also be understood, as well as the concept of Messianic light” To what secrecy. extent does he achieve this? Candidates must be able to see in the purpose of The Great Luke his intention to warn about what is being Reversal referred to as the great reversal or the turning of the tides. They should demonstrate how they have understood the changes: the outcasts belonging to the new people of God, the poor becoming rich, and women thrown out being brought in, and sinners who would not be allowed to eat at the banquet being preferred. In all these, however, they should show understanding of how Luke has his eyes on the need for some of these persons to undergo conversion.Universal affirmation This theme must be shown to be closely connected with the characteristic of mercy and of the the universal saving will of Jesus for humanity. world (Theme of Inclusion) Salvation (See characteris tics) Other themes include The Word of God Conversion The Response of Faith 12 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level INTRODUCTION TO THE GOSPEL OF LUKEAUTHORSHIP WHO WROTE THE GOSPEL OF LUKE? Christian tradition has always maintained that the author of the third Gospel is the one referred to in Col. 4:14 as the beloved Physician of Paul. When we read the Introduction to the Gospel, it becomes clear that the author was not an eyewitness of the Jesus events, nor was he an important personality. This somehow confirms this traditional view. To prove the authorship of the third Gospel, it would be important to examine internal and external evidences. By internal we man what the New Testament accounts assert regarding the author Luke. External evidence refers to those sources scholars have identified as capable of serving as proof not found in Scriptures. A. Internal Evidence When one reads the Introduction to the third Gospel (Lk 1:1-4) and the Introduction to the Acts of the Apostles (AA 1:1-4), we are immediately struck by the following observations: that the two books are written to the same person as the direct audience, namely, Theophilus; that the one book takes off from where the other ends; that both books contain 50 similar words not found anywhere else in the New Testament, we are left with no other choice that conclude that the two books have a singular author. Yet this does not say it is Luke. Internal evidence from the Gospel itself does not exist to hint that Luke is the author. However, tradition has always considered this author to be a companion of Paul, a gentile from Syria of Antioch, a physician and bearing the name Luke. When we read the Acts of the Apostle further we have many reasons to affirm that the author was a companion of Paul. Yet in the entire book we do not come across the name Luke. In this connection, we have the WE passages. Indeed, in Acts 16:10-17 Paul had just had a vision calling him to come to Marcedonia. All along the writer has been reporting the activities of the apostles in the third person. Suddenly the narrative changes to the first person, thus making himself inclusive. We then learn that he accompanied Paul to Marcedonia, he was with Paul in Troas (AA 20:5-15), he journeyed with him to Jerusalem and joined the delegation of Paul to see James (21:1-18), he accompanied Paul to Italy and with him experienced the shipwreck at Malta, was welcome by Publius and arrived Rome with Paul. (27:1- 28:16), he also was with Paul in Troas again during the second missionary journey. (50-52). Now in Paul’s own writing, we come across the mention of Luke as one of his companions. In Col 4:14, Luke is described as “our beloved doctor”. To Philemon, Paul mentions Luke as one of those in prison with him. In his Second Letter to Timothy Paul indicates that only Luke remained with him among all his companions. (2 Tm 4:11). The qualification of Luke as beloved doctor seems to tie with the traditional attributes given to the author of the third Gospel. Many scholars, reading through Luke thought they found in it some physician language, some medical terminologies that lend credence to the author being a doctor. This has sparked some debate, since it is argued that physicians at the time were not known to have had an identifiable medical jargon, and that the term physician was used not exclusively for medical doctors. Yet the way he describes certain events still lend credence to his personality. He was certainly a person of far greater learning that Mark and Matthew. As a Syrian of Antioch, the author must be a gentile. Now from the internal presentation of the writings, we find several reasons to conclude that it was a gentile who actually wrote the Gospel and the Acts. It is evident in the way he avoids Semitic language, like in 22:39 where he substitutes Abba with Father; He does not talk of Boarneges, but rather of Sons of Thunder when naming the twelve. He arranges texts etc. 13 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level From all these evidences, we find no reasons to deny Luke’s authorship, since there is no other evidence in opposition to this. B. External Evidence From external sources we have in mind what the Church holds as tradition. These teachings have different sources: Two 2nd Century collections called the Muratorian canons and the Apostolion of Marcion attributed the third Gospel to a man called Luke stating “the third Book of the Gospel according to Luke, who was a doctor after the resurrection of Christ and a companion of Paul.” There existed also some anti-Marcionite Prologue added to the Gospel at a not very certain date, which describes Luke as a Syrian of Antioch, doctor by profession, disciple of the apostles and at a later date, disciple of the Apostle Paul until Paul’s death at 84”. The same tradition is found in the writings of several Fathers of the Church including Irenaeus, Tertullian, Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Eusebius and Jerome. Although it may be difficult for us to test all these traditions, however, the fact that they agree with the internal evidence makes them proof enough. LUKE’S AUDIENCE The question here is: Who was Luke writing to? There is a general agreement that the writer of the Third Gospel must have had in mind a wider audience, regardless of the evidence from the Gospel indicate that he was writing to a certain Theophilus. A. Theophilus as Audience That Luke was writing to Theophilus is obvious from the Preface. LK1:1-4). Indeed if read with the Acts of the Apostles it is the first of two writings to the same person. Who was this Theophilus? He is addressed as His Excellency. This is a title that indicates he was a man of high social standing. Some suggest that Luke meant to dedicate his work to him, since such a gesture would mean that Theophilus is being designated to promote the circulation of the book. This was the custom in Luke’s days. Others think Theophilus was a gentile Christian who had asked Luke for information about Christ. Yet some say he was probably a Roman official who had received unfavourable reports about the activities of the early Christians. It is even less likely that he was Luke’s publisher. One wonders whether approaching the Gospel as a personal letter to Theophilus will be a fair assessment of the work of Luke. Could it be that Luke meant to have the name Theophilus for a type (those who love God – as the Greek meaning suggests?). Was Luke’s choice of a pagan name an indication that he meant to limit the Gospel to such educated pagans? This too would not be a fair consideration. Luke surely intended to provide important information regarding the events of Jesus’ life to the entire Christian communities throughout the empire at the time. If Luke was defending Christianity, then he was certainly thinking not only of Theophilus but also of the Christian community experiencing rejection, so that Christianity would appeal to the Roman official too, before whom convicted Christians were often brought to answer charges made against them. B. The Gentiles as Audience If he was not writing to Theophilus alone, then some have concluded that his was a Gospel by a gentile to the Gentiles. This particular consideration needs to be amplified. We have established beyond reasonable doubt the Gentile character of the author. But how do we establish that he had a gentile audience in view?14 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level Luke sets out to write an accurate account in a chronological manner for converts’ information on oral catechesis. The point is in doing so, he skilfully avoids specifically Jewish elements such as would be found in Matthew. (Cf Mt 7:1-23 and Lk 6:37-42). He explains words and Customs (LK 1:26 – Nazareth, a city of Galilee – if he were writing to Jews, they would know where Nazareth is found). (Lk 2:21: on circumcision, a thing which is obvious for Jesus, he makes a brief separate note on). Talking about unleaven bread feast, he calls it the Passover as a way of explanation. He avoid any sayings that may scandalize the Gentiles such as would make Jesus appear ignorant of things of God. (The Hour in Mk 13:32). Luke makes Jesus deliberately turn away from the Jews in preference for the non-Jews (Lk 4:25-30 – and he would work no miracles there…). On tracing the genealogy of Christ, Luke goes on to Adam to make Jesus a descendant of humankind and not just the Jewish Abraham. (Lk 3:23-38). He includes several passages that attack or denounce Jewish exclusivism. Gentiles must not be left out. (Cf. The healing of the ten lepers, 17:11-19; the Parable of the Good Samaritan 10:29-37), the Prodigal Son in which he attacks the self-righteousness of the Jews and their practice of excluding sinners (15:11-32). Luke’s purpose shows he meant to include the Gentiles: He was out to present God’s ultimate plan to save all mankind. He does this by moving from John’s birth to the scene of the drama of salvation: Jerusalem: the city that accommodates men of all races and nations. If we read further in the Acts, he moves the scene to Rome, capital of the gentile world. The point of view towards Jesus also indicates Luke’s audience included gentiles. Through Jesus he shows that God’s promise to save Israel included the gentiles, the unclean, the poor, the outcasts, tax collectors, women, Samaritans, sinners too. LUKE’S PURPOSE (History, Theology; Good News; Evangelium) In discussing the purpose of Luke we are able to establish why Luke wrote. In this light, we would be able to establish the character of his Gospel as history or as the Good news put down by an evangelist or Theologian. Hence, was it Luke’s intention to write a historical account or was it his to write a gospel, some good news for the people of his time and thereafter? In the Preface of Luke (1:1-4) we read; “Inasmuch as many have taken in hand to set in order a narrative of those things which have been fulfilled among us, just as those who from the beginning were eyewitnesses and ministers of the word delivered them to us, it seemed good to me also, having had perfect understanding of all things from the very first, to write to you an orderly account, most excellent Theophilus, that you may know the certainty of those things in which you were instructed.” In this brief introduction to the Gospel of Luke, we notice some points of interest. Luke writes to us explaining that in the early days, many people took up the task of setting in order a narrative of the life of Jesus, the Son of God. This implies Luke wants those who read the Gospel to remember the deeds of this man Jesus. Luke indicates that it was good that he himself should write an account of Christ’s life. This implies Luke knew that within him there are certain abilities that could help explain the events better; certain qualifications that other writers did not have. For instance, he had been in the company of eyewitnesses who had accurately told him the details of the events and again he “had a perfect understanding of all these things from the very first”. Thus, he had accurately followed the events of Jesus’ life from the start. Following this line of reasoning, Luke declares that an “orderly account” should be written for “Theophilus” (one who loves God). Hence, his purpose is to put things orderly, since his sources are more authentic. This was within the background of the persecution of Christians by the Romans. Luke wants to show that Christianity is not as dangerous as it is being regarded by the State of Rome. Christianity is not a political movement or a insubordinate, subversive or revolutionary sect plotting to overthrow the15 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level Romans. He will also by this ordering of the account correct any misunderstandings about the nature and intent of Christianity. Furthermore writing to Theophilus does not limit his work to a personal letter. His purpose was to reach a wider audience. Luke wanted his Gospel to appeal to Jews but also to the gentiles, who too are included in the plan of salvation. But let us also consider what he states as the reason behind his putting things this orderly. He tells Theophilus he is writing; “That you may know the truth.” Luke understood that an accurate knowledge of the earthly life of Christ would strengthen the faith of Christians everywhere. Writing about the earthly life of Christ implies Luke was out to present an accurate history or chronological account of Jesus’ life. The mention of history here raises yet another problem: Was Luke writing history or was he writing Good news to inspire faith in those who read it? From his purpose does he come forth as a Theologian, an evangelist, a writer of good news, or as a historian?LUKE: THEOLOGIAN (EVANGELIST, WRITER OF GOOD NEWS) OR HISTORIAN (BIOGRAPHER) The use of the term chronology in the Preface of Luke suggests a historical account. When Luke also mentions that he was to re-order accounts from the very first, it suggests a biography. Indeed, he seems to be writing a Biography of the life of Christ from birth to death and thereafter. However, to establish if it is history, biography we need to consider what history and biography represent. Distinction has been made between scientific history, a biography and salvation history. If Luke’s account were history we would expect his display of knowledge, his knowledge of facts and events, formal statements of such information, narratives, descriptions, written records, obtained by inquiry. The result would be a systematic, written account of events, particularly of those affecting his days, the early Church as an institution, and usually connected with some explanation of their causes. Such events must include true stories, not mere relation of facts and events of each year in strict chronological order. Scientific history thus differs from biography, which is the record of an individual's life. Reading through the Gospel we have much reason to think Luke was concerned with writing history. For this reason he attached to the public ministry of John and Jesus an elaborate synchronism (for which there are parallels in Greek historians and Josephus), dating the coming of the word of God to John the Baptist in the fifteenth year of Tiberius Caesar (AD. 28-9), when Pontius Pilate was governor of Judaea (26 -- 36); Herod tetrarch of Galilee (4 BC. -AD.39); Philip, his brother, tetrarch of Iturea and Trachonitis (4 BC.-AD. 34); Lysanias tetrarch of Abilene (doubtful date) and when Annas and Caiaphas were high priest (3:1-2). This notice illustrates Luke’s desire to set the gospel narrative in the context of world history. See that he presents the infancy narratives in a historical and chronological manner. From time to time, he corrects the chronology of his sources for historical accuracy ( eg MK 9:2/Lk 9:28 – He calls Herod the Tetrarch, which is a correct title for a King at the time; Lk 9:7-9/MK 1:16 – He corrects the Sea of Galilee of Mark calling it Lake Gennesareth; Lk 5:1 – He mentions facts that were true to his time such as the massacre of the Galileans by Pilate, the fall of Jerusalem, the collapse of the Pool of Siloam 13:4ff; He more explicitly calls Simon the Zealot , he tries to identify Pilate as Governor of Judea well ahead of the trial of Jesus unlike Mark who does not really tell the reader who Pilate was. However, a critical examination of the historical data of Luke, leave much to be desired of a scientific historian. His historical information reflects a certain lack of familiarity with Jewish affairs, for instance, only Caiaphas was high priest at the time (though his father-in-law Annas doubtless retained the title honorary). Another difficulty occurs in his story of the birth of Jesus, which he dates both ‘in the days of King Herod’ (1:5, before 4 BC.) and in relation to a census16 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level under Quirinius, governor of Syria, in AD. 6 (2:2). Various attempts have been made to clear up this apparent contradiction by postulating an earlier Roman census in Palestine, but it cannot be said that they have been entirely successful. notice also, that if Luke got his sources from Mark and yet he modifies them, it implies either he was not sure of the historical truths of his sources, since it is believed they were not the original periscopes or he was not concerned with presenting a historically reliable account of Jesus’ activities. Furthermore, Luke's Gospel contains a significant number of errors and misinterpretations. These errors are geographical, cultural and political. Indeed, we find important inaccuracies regarding the descriptions and interpretations of persons, events and issues. How? Consider what he writes about a census for instance. He says it was ordered by Caesar Augustus. Now, according to history, Caesar Augustus never ordered a general census or enrolment of names. Even if there had been such a census, there would have been no need for Jesus’ parents to travel all the way to Bethlehem for registration. Even so, Quirinius, who is mentioned, was not Governor of Syria at the time when such a census is supposed to have occurred. Instead, history has it that Herod, the Great was. Luke probably confused facts regarding a census ordered by Josephus AD 6-7, or he merely wanted to look for some justification to show that Joseph was loyal to the Roman census decree. Luke, it cannot be said, was a strict biographer. Indeed, he gives us Jesus life from birth. He recounts his infancy in a systematic manner. He brings the story of the life of Jesus to the passion and resurrection. However, that he continues in the Acts makes Luke an incomplete biographical account. Often Luke skips huge sections regarding Jesus’ life. After 12 when he instructs the doctors in the temple, we do not hear anything about Christ until he was about to begin his ministry. Even in his plot, Luke shows Jesus’ life as if it were in fact one great journey to Jerusalem. This was not the case since Jesus is seen in other Gospels going and coming back from Jerusalem for one festival or another. This leaves us with the issue of salvation history. This type of history is written by historians who are out to highlight the Good news. They are theologians who use history only as a means to an end. In this way they are not scientific. Luke suggests that he is writing for people to become open to the whole truth. It is the truth that sets men free, and this is good news. Hence, Luke is going to make an orderly account for purposes of catechesis, to teach about Jesus Christ, to defend Christianity. Luke's history serves his conceptual designs, which are the way he formulates his theological ideas, thoughts and beliefs. Since he conceives and presents a Gospel as Christian salvation history, while staying close to his sources, he modifies them, transforming events, juxtaposing some to suit his purpose. Luke introduces Adam into the genealogy account. When we consider the structure of Luke, it becomes obvious that he modelled it on his theology. He begins and ends his writing in the creative presence of God. He starts the Gospel presenting Jesus’ origins and ends with a narrative of his destiny. His work Luke-Acts assumes a three-staged periodic layout: The Era of the Law and the Prophets, the Era of Jesus and the Era of the Church. This is not a historical pattern. Luke therefore, writes a Gospel characterized by his views regarding a universal Jesus saviour of all especially women, outcast, etc. Hence, though Luke's Gospel is a historical work, the historical information in it only serves as a handmaid to Luke's theological purpose. This is the work of an Evangelist, a writer of Good news, a Theologian more than a historian or biographer or even one who writes a memoir. 17 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level THE STRUCTURE OF THE GOSPEL OF LUKE We have studied the purpose of Luke. To achieve this, Luke uses some structural components. Scholars have identified what they refer to as a plot structure and a composition structure. While the two have different implications, for Luke, they are a continuum. They are so related that they always go together. Others have described Luke's structure from a literary and a prophetic point of view. As a literary structure, they explain that Luke uses geography to structure his story and to advance his literary and theological goals. They also see Luke using literary prophecy, where he structures his narratives to show that the Old Testament is fulfilled in the new. However, an easier approach is that of the plot structure and the composition structure. By composition structure we are referring to the strategies he uses to organize his source material and by plot structure we mean the thematic layout of the narrative. It has been suggested that Luke composes from Mark but includes other sources. Hence, the structural pattern of Luke will be that of Mark Luke's plot structure falls into three sections running through Luke-Acts. Periods one consists of the Time of Promise, which for Luke comes to an end only with the “Today” in the Sermon of Nazareth (Lk4:21). However, the first two chapters are assigned to this section. From the third chapter to the end of Luke we are told about the Time of Jesus. This is the second period. The third period is the Time of the Church. This section does not concern us as much. Beginning with the Preface, in which Luke defines his purpose, the composition structure proceeds to the first period (1-2), which some prefer to call the PROLOGUE. Scholars think these two chapters were later addition to the Gospel. The Second period, the Life of Christ could be further divided into two parts, namely Chapters 3-21 and 22-24 respectively. The former covers the Galilean ministry to the Passion. This section shows many important links with Matthew and Mark. In some cases the similarities are too great that we concluded he copied. The latter, on the other hand, is referred to as the Passion Narratives and the Resurrection Appearances. Luke continues to use Mark in this section until the beginning of chapter 24. However, in this section, he differs on several occasions from Mark. He does not make the Last Supper a Passover, he takes after John, that Jesus was crucified before the Passover. He mentions the cup before the bread (22:17-19) suggesting that wine preceded the Bread in the celebration of the Supper. The Resurrection Appearances are from a source best known to Luke. In it, we have the most perfect narratives of the New Testament: The Emmaus story and the Ascension. Other scholars see a plot structure within the second section of the composition structure that has three stages: Stage One: This is set in Galilee. Here Jesus is presented as proclaiming the Paschal Mystery (4:14-9:50). The Sermon of Nazareth is the speech that lays out the programme for this proclamation. Luke brings together two visits, one in which Jesus is well received and another in which he is rejected. In this way he shows how this proclamation will be received. In 7:1 and 8:2, he presents Jesus as the New Elijah, the prophet who is a friend to sinners. Stage two: This is set as a great journey to Jerusalem being undertaken by Jesus, a movement towards the Paschal Mystery. (9:51-19:27). Indeed, this is the most original part of his Gospel. While Mark in one chapter narrates the journey to Jerusalem, Luke stretches it through ten chapters. This give him the opportunity to include a great amount of additional teaching of his own, now referred to as THE GREAT INSERTION.. Stage three: This is set in Jerusalem, where Jesus fulfils his Paschal Mystery. (19:29-24:53). This is the final stage. On Easter Day, he shows himself alive to the disciples and ascends to heaven. From the structure, we see a centrality of Jerusalem. It is the place of the drama of18 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level Salvation not Galilee. We see that the drama of Jesus’ entire life is presented as One Great Journey to Jerusalem. This affects the historical value of the Gospel and brings out the theological character. To conclude, we may say that in structuring his texts, Luke, while remaining faithful to his sources, allowed himself both in interpreting a Palestinian-Jewish account for Gentiles and in casting the narrative in a theological mould. LUKE’S LANGUAGE AND STYLE Luke borrows from the Hellenistic historical writes as we have seen earlier. His Prologue is modelled on the Hellenistic style and this gives the impression that he was first a historian. He has investigated the matter closely, he tells us, and now intends to set forth the material (1:3). Using a literary device called synchronism, he relates the events to the contemporary scene. (2:1-3: 3:1f). He even gives the age of Jesus (3:23). However, when we read the Gospel itself, we realize soon that he is an evangelist more than a historian, thanks to his language and style. Indeed, Luke is said to have written a literary work to be read, while Matthew and Mark are said to have written impersonal community books for the purpose of worship. Luke’s language is more polished Greek than Matthew and Mark, yet it is still popular language. It does not avoid Hebraic tones as found in hymns and discourses. He has a larger vocabulary from the other synoptics. He works on both the text and language of his sources adding explanatory notes at some stages, taking up a Semitic tone at other stages. In taking up Mark, he adopts a three fold plan of the gospel: Galilee, Journey to Jerusalem, and Jerusalem, and strangely inserts most of his own material in the long journey account which is evidently a literary framework where his theological motifs are expressed. Some of the events are blown up. To others he added dramatic touch and to some still he makes them more of narratives, not feeling obliged to retain all topographical notices of Mark: eg. Capernaum, the sea of Galilee (5;17; 9:46; 5:27; 6:17; 8:4), the Decapolis (8:39), Galilee (9:43). In the journey narratives he tries to render them continuous by centring the narratives on Jerusalem, a devise based on his theological interpretation. Some scholars see St. Paul’s style in Luke’s writing, and so they term it Pauline. They argue that there are many linguistic similarities between the writings of the two. They see common themes in both such as universalism: Paul says Jews first, but Greeks as well. They both emphasize the duty of persistence in prayer. They both have very many common phrases. Luke is therefore, said to have set before his audience concepts of the life and work of Christ which were basic to Paul’s teachings Another interesting feature of Luke’s style is his habit of rounding off one subject before passing on to another. This is a characteristic that might obviously lead to misinterpretation: eg. When he says, Mary remained with her cousin Elizabeth about three months and then returned home (Lk 1:56), he goes not to talk about the birth of John the Baptist. It should not be understood as if he meant to imply that Mary had departed before John’s birth. He merely wanted to complete the episode. Similarly, Luke indicates well in advance matters that will be dealt with later and so ensures the unity and flow of the narrative. (Cf the sojourns of John the Baptist in the desert and 3:2, the Divine will) If Luke’s style is complex, it is because he is a poet to a great extent. He is equally brandished as an artist and credited with the first painting of the Mother of Jesus, Mary. This has led to his being referred to as the Father of Christian History and Art. The Emmaus experience remains a charming narrative and a literary masterpiece. 19 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level PLACE AND COMPOSITION Luke's writings show that he had precise knowledge of Antioch. Indeed, tradition has associated the place of the writing of the Gospel as Antioch. Yet this does not mean that he wrote either from there or to Antioch. (Cf Acts 6:5 and 11:19-26 etc). Luke may have written to the Church of Rome or to one of the Churches in Greece. Hence the place of composition remains uncertain. The same is true regarding the date. Ireneaus thinks it was before Paul’s death. Jerome, depending on Eusebius thinks it was after Paul’s death. Some critics defend a date around 63 AD or between AD 63 and 70. Majority hold a date after 70 AD basing their arguments on the way Luke renders Jesus’ prophecy on the fall of Jerusalem. The earliest date suggested is 60 and the latest is 95 AD. THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GOSPEL OF LUKETHE UNIVERSALITY OF THE GOSPEL (UNIVERSALISM – GOSPEL FOR ALL) The Universality of the Christian faith is perhaps the most marked characteristic of the Third Gospel. It gives the Gospel a distinctive character. From start to finish, it is evident that in Christ there is “no east or west, neither Jew nor Greek”. This is the case from Simeon’s song (Nunc dimities – in which he acclaims Jesus a light to the Gentiles and glory to Israel), to the last encounter with the Risen Lord with his disciples, when he told them that “repentance and forgiveness of sins should be preached in his name to ALL NATION. (Lk 24:27). He emphasized the fact that the Gospel is not for Jews only, but for all peoples. The central theme is that Jesus is the Saviour of the whole world. How did Luke reinforce this message? Luke omits much material that was purely Jewish in character, eg the material in Matthew’s sermon which deals directly with Jesus’ relation to the Jewish law. (Mt 5:21-48). His stress on Jesus’ conflicts with the Scribes and Pharisees is less marked than in Matthew. He omits Matthew 23 completely. He includes much of positively universal nature: e.g. relating his story to events of the Roman Empire (2:1-2; 3:1). He traces Jesus’ ancestry to Adam, unlike Matthew who traces it to Abraham to underscore that Jesus belongs to the entire human race. He omits Jesus’ instruction to the 12 to “go nowhere near the Gentiles, and enter no town of the Samaritans, but to go rather to the lost sheep of the house of Israel. 10:56). We see traces of this universalism in the Canticle of the Angels (2:14) – Peace on earth to ALL those he favours. Simeon’s song, the genealogy, and John the Baptist’s citations of Isaiah – all flesh will see the salvation of God 3:6 – Is 40:5). Luke warns the Jews they will be supplanted at the Messianic feast by men from every land. But did universalism for Luke mean an acceptance of the “status quo”? Lucan Jesus accepts the poor, the infirm, women, gentiles, as well as persons from a wide range of backgrounds, accepting dinner invitations from the rich and hospitality from wealthy and powerful persons. Yet we must note that this did not imply acceptance with the status quo. Yes, he visited the rich and accepted their hospitality, but he also used such occasions to call on them to give up their riches and free themselves. Similarly, he presents Jesus in close association with the twelve, but also shows him consistently reprimanding, or chastising, or reproaching them for their ambition and inclination to violence. Hence, though Jesus’ position is one of concern and compassion for the people from all walks of life, he does not passively accept values or practices that run counter to his own vision regarding healthy social relationships.20 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level LUKE AND THE MARGINALIZED We can approach a good number of Luke's characteristics under this broader heading: By marginalized we are referring to those the Jewish practices kept at the fringes of society: Jews and non-Jews alike. These are the social misfits, the outcasts, those who experience what is now referred to as Jewish exclusivism. Amongst these we identify the Samaritans, women, the infirm, the poor, tax-collectors and sinners. A general consideration of these would include the fact that Luke is full of sympathy for them. He is said to have written a gospel of human sympathy. His heart beats for the poor and the outcasts. Luke places a special emphasis on Jesus’ love for the ones whom the world considers outcasts. Only those who know they are lost can hope for the mercy of God. While all these aspects we are highlighting are particular cases, they also serve to justify the assertion that Jesus is the Universal Saviour. The purpose of Luke in all these is to warn about what is being referred to as the great reversal. Tides will turn. The outcasts will belong to the new people of God. The poor will become rich, women thrown out will be brought in, and sinners who would not be allowed to eat at the banquet will be preferred. In all these, however, Luke has his eyes on the need for some of these persons to undergo conversion. Prominent among some of the parables include the parable of the Good Samaritan, that of the Prodigal Son, that of the Pharisee and the Publican are. Luke also mentions special persons like Zacchaeus (19:1-10), Mary of Magdala (7:36-50), the grateful Samaritan leper (17:11-19), the dying thief (23:39-43). In these, Jesus answers questions such as “How does one proof to be a true neighbour to others? Is this by belonging to a class? Can Lawyers imitate the outcasts, the son who is supposedly guilty, the sinful one, worthy of condemnation before the Jewish law? Jesus hails this son as a symbol of repentance. The Publican whom society considers unrighteous sets an example of a sincere pattern of prayer. a. Non-Jews (Samaritans, Romans etc) Some scholars have identified the place Luke gives to Samaritans in his Gospel as one of such special features of his universality. Politically and religiously, Samaritans were outcasts from Jewish circles. However, Luke shows Jesus closely working with them. (9:51-56; 17:11). In the Parable of the Good Samaritan, (10:25-37) and the story of the Samaritan leper ( 17:11-19), Samaritans are hailed as examples of genuine neighbourliness and gratitude, thus nearer the kingdom than the self-righteous Jews. Why had Luke to highlight the Samaritans from amongst the non-Jews? The answer lies in the history of the relationship between the Jews and the Samaritans. During the early Church period, Philip’s mission to Samaritans met with much opposition (Acts 8) and Luke shows the same kind of opposition regarding Paul’s mission. (Acts 15) Luke was to show that the Samaritans’ mission was rooted in Jesus’ mind and not an innovation by the apostles. Yet to be true to the universal character of Luke, we must stress here that Luke was not in any way anti- Semitic. He emphasized that Jesus is rooted in Judaism. He alone reports the circumcision and dedication of Jesus (2:21-24), his visit to the Temple at the age of twelve. He mentions Anna, Zacchariah and Elizabeth, indicating his regards for them. They are presented as the faithful remnants of the Jews upon whom the Holy Spirit rested. (2:25). Throughout his Gospel, Luke also shows how Jesus was the fulfilment of the Old Testament story of salvation. He presents Jesus as one who can be understood only in the light of the Law, the Prophets and the Psalms: (24:25-27,44- 47). b. Women The Gospel of Luke is known to be one that favours women. Luke gives them a prominent place. Unlike Matthew, were the infancy narratives centre on Joseph and his problem, Luke focuses21 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level on Mary (1:28). He does so in a way that shows how God reverses the poverty and powerlessness of the human condition. He presents women too as people who could be Spirit filled and play a role in revealing Jesus to the nations. Elizabeth, the mother of John the Baptist is able to identify Mary as the most blessed (1:39-58), the peculiar story of the prophetess Anna gives a feminine touch to the prophetic nature of the man Simeon’s revelation, and commends women for their dedication. The dealing of Jesus with the sinful woman shows Jesus’ mercy to women, and his call to conversion which strongly contrasting it with the Jewish legalistic patterns. (7:36-50) Luke narrates the relationship of Jesus to Martha and Mary (10:38-42) for whom the Good news is also meant. In two parables he makes women the central characters (the lost coin 15:8-10, and the unjust (Corrupt, Unscrupulous) judge or the importunate widow 18:1-8). Luke also includes items about women told elsewhere, but gives more detail – the women who accompanied Jesus, (8:2; 23:55), the woman who declared the mother of Jesus blessed 11:27) If we ask why the emphasis on women, we will equally find the answer in the history of the Jews and their religious customs. Indeed, women emancipation in the first century was more advanced in the Gentile world than among the Jews. Jews marginalized women. Consider that in the Jewish Morning Prayer for instance, the man thanks God that he has not made him “a Gentile, a slave or a woman.” The emphasis on women agrees with Luke's purpose to offer Jesus to all. He was out to show, like St. Paul that in Christ, “there is neither male nor female” (Gal 2:). However, it is interesting that Jesus in His outlook did not as yet introduce women as part of the twelve. The apostles in replacing Judas in the Acts followed suit. Women were not part of the consideration. Though the women first knew about the resurrection, they were to tell the disciples, but the disciples had the charge to announce this to the ends of the earth. Today, the issue of women emancipation is still relevant as there are still forms of feminine marginalization in some of our cultural and religious practices. This is even true when we consider debates and controversies regarding the person and role of Mary. c. Gospel of the Poor and the Rich In the life and teachings of Christ, Jesus often warns about the dangers of riches. In no other Gospel than in Luke do we find this issue so strongly stressed. Luke presents us with extensive material, which indicate Jesus stance on this matter. Summarily, Jesus is opposed to the accumulation of riches or possessions (the rich fool, Lk 12:13-21). He counsels on simplicity of life (12:22-34) Jesus calls for simplicity when he sends his disciples on mission (10:4), he preaches the necessity for the rich to give to the poor (almsgiving and sharing) and to make restitution (Zacchaeus), he criticizes the rich and praises those who give up their possessions. Luke underscores that God disposes even when the rich man proposes, and indicates that riches cannot buy or rule God. This is more evident in the parable of the rich fool (Lk 12:13-21). Here he warns against the dangers of covetousness and riches. Luke's description of Jesus includes the notion that Jesus is calling on his followers to “sell all that they own and give the money to the poor. Jesus addresses this call in 18:18-23, to the richest segment of society; but Luke also depicts Jesus as giving similar admonitions to those who were not nearly so rich. In the setting of the Great Sermon, Jesus bids his hearers to “give to everyone who begs from them.” (6:30); similarly, after he had recounted the parable of the rich fool, he instructs his disciples to sell their possessions and give alms. In 16:9, Jesus tells his followers to make friends for themselves with that tainted thing (money), so that when it fails, they may be received into the eternal kingdom. Jesus is in this way, advising his followers to be responsible with their possessions.22 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level In the great Banquet, the poor are mentioned as those preferred to the rich who are the unworthy invitees (14:13-33). In the story of Dives and Lazarus, Luke considers the effects of a rich man’s indifference on the poverty-stricken and signals the great reversal (16:19-31). In the story of Zacchaeus, Luke highlights the need for conversion, charitable giving and restitution by the rich as a way of genuine liberation (19:1-10). Luke alone records Jesus counsel to “sell your possessions, and give alms” (13:33) and his encouragement to “invite the poor” to dinner (14:13). In the infancy narratives, Mary, Jesus’ mother – in the Magnificat (1:52-53), and John the Baptist, his cousin are portrayed as having definite sympathies for the poor and oppressed. John the Baptist points out the social duties of tax-collectors and soldiers, a duty which favours the poor and the destitute (3:10- 14). In the Sermon on the Plain, the Beatitudes stress in a radical way the contrast between the poor and the rich, signalling also the great reversal. In his criticism of the rich, Jesus accepts hospitality from persons of means and works cures that benefit the rich and the powerful, the degree to which he also criticises the rich may initially seem surprising to us. In the Sermon on the Mount (Plain), the rich and the poor are contrasted. The literally poor are blessed and the rich receive woes. Jesus also speaks adversely against the rich in the parable of the sower and the seed (8:4-15) when he makes reference to those who are being choked by the cares and riches and pleasures of life. This is not as direct, but it is a reminder that in Jesus’ view, the patterns and practices common to the rich are not happy ones. Luke adds the reaction of the Pharisees and lawyers to Jesus teachings on riches. He describes them as those who were lovers of money. They scoffed at Jesus (16:14). Jesus sharply criticises them. He tells them, that while they may have standing before their peers because of their wealth, they do not have it before God. We must notice, however, that Luke does not mean to say riches are evil, but that the rich must give up the excess riches to the poor. This explains why he praises those who give up their possessions, like Zacchaeus. d. A Gospel for the Infirm (and the Sick)Luke indicates that Jesus responded with sympathy to the sick and the infirm. Luke records many cures, and frequently includes in such narratives summary statements concerning Jesus’ healing ministry. In 7:22-23, Jesus’ reply to John’s disciples recalls Isaiah’s words used by Jesus in the synagogue in Nazareth. The Messiah comes for the poor, the blind, the lame, the deaf and lepers. In this Luke showed that Jesus also healed non-Jews. This provides concrete reinforcement for Jesus’ rebuke of his town’s people at Nazareth after they rejected him. Here, as well as in such matters as the use of surplus possessions and the use of violence, there is a remarkable agreement, congruence in Luke between what Jesus teaches and what he does. A GOSPEL OF PRAYER Luke's writing has been described as the Gospel of prayer. Luke teaches the importance of prayer. He shows Jesus at prayer on several occasions, thus presenting him as the Supreme example of prayer. Jesus did not only pray, but he on several occasion recommended prayer to his followers. In and through the teachings of Christ, Luke presents the nature and purpose of prayer. In the light of Luke's emphasis on prayers, we find some prayer texts laid out in his Gospel which are today being used as models of prayer in worship. Let us analyse these various aspects. Jesus at Prayer: The example Jesus set regarding prayer is evident in the following instances: 1) 3:21: After his baptism, he was at prayer when the dove and voice were experienced. 2) 5:16: In the desert, Luke says Jesus would go off from the crowd to a desert place to pray. 3) 6:12: After cleansing the leper and before calling his disciples, He spent the whole night in prayer. 4) 9:18 – Before the confession of Peter – “now it happened that he was praying alone. 5) 9:28-2923 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level – At the transfiguration. 6) 11:1 The sight of him at prayer moved his disciples to ask: “Lord, teach us how to pray…” 7) 23:34, 46 – On the cross he prayed for his murderers – “Father, forgive them… and then he prayed for himself – “Father, into thy hands I commend my spirit.” The Nature and purpose of Prayer and Jesus’ recommendation: Jesus recommends prayer as a thing that needs persistence if it has to be answered or bear fruits. It is the purpose of the parable of the importunate widow 18:1-6 and that of the friend in the night 11:5-12. Essential to the spirit of prayer is humility and the confession of sins. This is evident in the parable of the Pharisee and the Publican 18:9-14. This same parable contains another component of prayer: sincerity. Prayer is a means to obtain the Holy Spirit 11:13. It must be constant: “Be on the alert and pray always that you will have the strength to go safely through all those thing that will happen and to stand before the Son of Man.” (Lk 21:36) It is offered for the forgiveness of sins 11:1-4 (Our Father). Models of Prayer: To help us live the teaching on prayer Luke includes several hymns and models prayers. The Song of Mary (Magnificat) My soul glorifies the Lord (1:46-55); the Song of Zacchariah (The Benedictus) Blessed be the Lord the God of Israel (1:68-79); the Song of Simeon (The Nunc Dimitis) At last All-powerful Master…” (2:29-32). The Song of the angels, (Gloria in excelsis Deo) Glory to God in the Highest 2:14; the Greeting of the Angel Gabriel (Ave Maria) Hail Mary, full of Grace (1:28-33), The Our Father (Pater Noster) pattern of all prayers (11:1-4). Prayer is essential for all, for the individual Christian and has always been the special office of the Church to give glory to God. GOSPEL OF THE HOLY SPIRIT Closely associated with prayer is the special feature of the Holy Spirit. More than the other Gospel writers, Luke stresses the work of the Holy Spirit both in the life of Christ and in the life of the witnessing Church. Hence, he mentions the activities of the Holy Spirit not only in Christ’s life, but also in the lives of simple folk. In the life of Christ, Luke presents Jesus as the Spirit bearer. After baptism and temptation, the power of the Spirit took him into Galilee to begin his work (4:14). His first words were a quotation of Isaiah 61:1ff. The text 4:16-19 puts his whole public ministry under the working of the Holy Spirit. It is in this light that we must see all his works and teachings. Jesus rejoices in the Holy Spirit at the manifestation of the Messiahship to the unworldly. In 11:13 the Holy Spirit is the “good thing”. The Risen Lord guaranteed his disciples that he would send the Spirit of Promise of the Father (24:49). Later in the Acts the Spirit, after Pentecost, will become the guiding and motivating power of the Church’s mission. In the lives of the simple folk, almost all persons mentioned in Luke 1-2 are said to be moved by or filled with the Holy Spirit of prophecy: John the Baptist in the mother’s womb leapt for joy (1:15,18), his parents Zacchariah (1:6ff), Elizabeth 1:41ff, Simeon 2:27ff, Anna 2:36. The teachings of Jesus on prayer include the Holy Spirit. The Spirit is set forth as a supernatural divine power 1:35. It will come upon Mary and the power of the Most High will overshadow her. Even in the modification of his sources, the Holy Spirit features as one of the changes Luke makes to Matthew’s (Cf. What the Father gives as an answer to prayers is according to Mat.7:11, “good things”- and according to Luke, “Holy Spirit” 11:13) A GOSPEL FULL OF CONTRASTS, CONFLICTS AND CONTROVERSIES IN LUKE A feature that abounds in Luke’s writing is contrast. The contrasts stand out because of the character of conflicts and controversies that are found in the Gospel. Internally, Luke is out for the Jewish Christians, who seek to apply over strict entrance requirements to those who wanted to join the new people of God. Through contrast, Luke also develops his view that it is belief in Him, Jesus24 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level that people qualify as children of Abraham and heirs of God’s promise not necessarily by direct descent. (13:10-17, 19:1-10) The lame, the blind and the maimed are now the elect (14:13,21), as well as the well-to-do gentile Christians who share their possessions with the needy (7:36-50) will all be included. Externally, Luke’s communities face problems of harassment, primarily from the loyal Jewish authorities (21:11-19). These problems involve the interpretation of scriptures, especially regarding Jesus as the fulfilment of the promise of God. Below is an inexhaustive list of scenes and elements contrasted by Luke A B The doubt of Zacchariah (1:11- the Faith of Mary (1:36-38) 22) The Self-righteousness of Simon The Sinful Harlot (7:36-50) The Busy-bustling Martha The quiet contemplative Mary (10:38-43) The boastful Pharisee The Humble Publican (18:9-14) The Good Samaritan The Priest and Levite (10:29-37) Dives (the Rich Man) Lazarus, the poor beggar (16:19ff) The four Beatitudes The four woes (6:20-26) Jesus weeping over Jerusalem The Hosannas of the multitude (19:28-44) The Penitent thief The reviling (or insulting) robber (23:39-43)OTHER THEMES/CHARACTERISTICS Luke is also known as a Gospel of hymns, a gospel of the bereaved, Gospel of Human sympathy, Gospel of Mercy and Salvation. THE SYNOPTIC PROBLEMWhat is the synoptic problem? The first three gospels, Matthew, Mark and Luke are strikingly similar and yet bear significant differences. This has lead to what is now referred to as The Synoptic Problem. The problem is an investigation into the existence and nature of the literary interrelationship among the first three "synoptic" gospels. Matthew, Mark, and Luke are called the synoptic gospels, in contrast with John, because they can readily be arranged in a three-column harmony called a "synopsis." The word synoptic itself is a combination of two Greek words, syn – with and optic – view. Together they imply viewed together, or one view. Unlike John, the synoptic gospels share a great number of parallel accounts and parables, arranged in mostly the same order, and told with many of the same words. Any proposed solution to the synoptic problem, therefore, must account for these literary similarities among the synoptics, not so much in terms of their factual content, but in the selection of that content, the arrangement of the material, and wording of the parallels.Why is the synoptic problem important? The synoptic problem is the cornerstone of historical critical scholarship of the gospels. As a result, one's solution to the synoptic problem will influence one's exegesis, redaction criticism, and form criticism of the gospels as well as affect the quest for the historical Jesus, early church history, and even the text of the gospels.What is the nature of the synoptic problem? When we study the content, the language, the arrangement, their point of view towards Jesus and towards the Jews and other literary presentations, we find that the Gospels are so interrelated for one to suggest that they all wrote from a common source. This notwithstanding, the gospels bear such differences that one would not help investigating why the similarities and the 25 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level differences. There is a documentary interrelationship. How is this? Let us consider some main, cumulative reasons for this conclusion: SIMILARITIES: Language (Verbatim agreement) . It is rare for two independent reporters of the same event to share more than a few words in common, but the synoptic gospels often feature a substantial number of agreements in their exact words. For example, in one passage about John the Baptist, Matthew and Luke agree for 61 out of 63 Greek words of a presumably Aramaic speech. Generally, the verbatim agreement between Matthew, Mark, and Luke runs about 50% of the words, but, by contrast, their agreement with John in parallel episodes falls to about 10%. Of over 660 verses found in Mark, we encounter 610 of them in Matthew and Luke. Arrangement: (Extensive agreement in order), especially in which the arrangement of material is not strictly chronological but topical or exhibiting some other creativity in presentation. In these cases, it is difficult to attribute the non-chronological but topical narration to independent reporting. For example, Matthew and Mark relate the death of John the Baptist as a non-chronological flashback in the same place in their narrative. As another example, the synoptics agree in the order in which certain parables and miracles are related in an arrangement that is probably intended to be topical. Content (Substantially similar selection of material), when that selection features some amount of creative, editorial choice. Jesus did and said many things, so any account of his ministry must involve some editorial judgment in what to include and what to leave out. The synoptic gospels, for instance, relate many of the same miracles, but these miracles hardly overlap with the ones related by John. Presence of editorial comments and other redaction material in the synoptics that are not necessitated by a mere telling of historical fact. For example, both Matthew and Mark feature an identical aside to the reader ("let the reader understand") in the synoptic apocalypse. A consistent literary pattern between the three documents that establishes Mark as the "middle term" connecting Matthew and Luke. Specifically, agreements between Matthew and Luke against Mark are consistently much less prevalent than agreements against Matthew or Luke in arrangement and wording. If the documents were not dependent on some common source, this would not be possible. Indeed, Mt and Luke have 240 verses that agree. Point of view towards Jesus and Jews: Towards Jesus they are all similar in presenting his life style. They all agree he is a pious Jew. They all show some bitterness against the Jews or at least manifest clearly that Jesus had controversies with these religious authorities of his time. DIFFERENCES: Discrepancies with Language. On the other hand, the agreement of language and words in the Gospels is not entire. The Lord’s prayer and the words of the Last Supper are good examples of this disagreement. (Lk 11:2-4; Mt 6:9-13) Dissimilarities in Arrangement: There are quite some differences in the way materials are grouped and scattered. There are variations in the number of parables in sections that are common, The similar sayings common to Matthew and Luke are at times laid out differently (eg. The Temptations of Jesus, the beatitudes, the yield of good seeds, Mt 12:8) Mark ends abruptly while Luke includes a collection of Appearances foreign to the other Gospel writers. Content Dissimilarities: Mark does not present a record of Christ’s life but incidents. Luke lays out his content differently. He leaves out some material and includes about 550 verses not found in other gospels. There are differences in the presentation of the infancy narratives. Consider the account of the Resurrection (Mt 28:1-8, Mk16:1-6, Lk24:1-4). Point of view towards Jesus and Jews: Each Gospel writer presents Jesus slightly differently. Matthew emphasizes the Messiah, fulfilment of the OT prophecies who manifest himself in theophanies. Mark tries to show Jesus as the Son of God, and Luke shows him as the Saviour of all. Matthew is bitter and biased against the Jews. Mark does not manifest any bias. Luke is bitter but not biased. 26 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level ATTEMPTED SOLUTIONS Several attempts have been made to resolve this problem. We shall consider only some of them including what has been termed: the triple Tradition, the double tradition, the two source hypothesis, the Q hypothesis, the oral Gospel hypothesis, the literary interdependence theory, the Documentary hypothesis. What do we mean? T he triple tradition: The triple tradition is material that is common to all three of the synoptics. Almost all of Mark's content is found in Matthew, and about two-thirds of Mark is found in Luke. The triple tradition largely consists of narrative material (miracles, healings, and the passion) but also contains some sayings material. The fundamental observation of the triple tradition and, indeed, the synoptic problem is that Mark is the "middle term" between Matthew and Luke. Many have made several suggestion why Mark is the middle term: either Mark was first and copied by both Matthew and Luke, or Matthew was first and was copied by Mark who was copied by Luke or again Luke was first and was copied by Mark who was copied by Matthew or even still Mark, who was third, combined and conflated Matthew and Luke. These are hypotheses. The double tradition: The double tradition tries to explain why Matthew and Luke share almost 240 verses not found in Mark. Its content is mainly saying material (mostly of Jesus, but some by John the Baptist) but includes at least one miracle story (the Centurion's Servant) as well. The double tradition exhibits some of the most striking verbatim agreements in some passages but quite divergent versions in other passages. Three basic documentary approaches have been proposed to account for the double tradition: Either Matthew and Luke copied from a common written source (or sources), usually named Q from German Quelle meaning "source", or Luke copied the double tradition from Matthew or Matthew copied the double tradition from Luke. The major Hypotheses to the synoptic problem By far, the most widely accepted solution for the synoptic problem is the Two Source Hypothesis (2SH). What is this? This suggests that Matthew and Luke copied from Mark and the Matthew and Luke had also a common source Q. Accordingly, Mark was written first among the synoptics. Matthew and Luke independently copied Mark for its narrative framework and independently added discourse material from a non-extant sayings source called "Q" for German Quelle, 'source'. Despite recent challenges, the 2SH remains the dominant synoptic theory today among New Testament scholars for most of the 19th century and throughout the 20th century. Lately much attention has been devoted to studying Q and its own history of composition.Below is a diagrammatic representation of these commonly agreed theories.Matthean SourceOral Tradition Q=Quelle Lucan SourceMarkMatthew Luke27 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level THE PARABLES OF JESUS What is a Parable?The word "parable" comes from the Greek parabolē, the name given by Greek rhetoricians to any fictive illustration in the form of a brief narrative. Later it came to mean a fictitious narrative, generally referring to something that might naturally occur, by which spiritual and moral matters might be conveyed. We may say a parable is a brief, succinct story, in prose or verse that illustrates a moral or religious lesson. It differs from a fable in that fables use animals, plants, inanimate objects, and forces of nature as characters, while parables generally feature human characters. When it is presented as a fable then it is a type of analogy. It is a short tale that illustrates universal truth, one of the simplest of narratives. It sketches a setting, describes an action, and shows the results. It often involves a character facing a moral dilemma, or making a questionable decision and then suffering the consequences. As with a fable, a parable generally relates a single, simple, consistent action, without extraneous detail or distracting circumstances. It is like a metaphor that has been extended to form a brief, coherent fiction. Christian parables have recently been studied as extended metaphors. Unlike the situation with a simile, a parable's parallel meaning is unspoken and implicit, though not ordinarily secret. The defining characteristic of the parable is the presence of a prescriptive subtext suggesting how a person should behave or believe. Aside from providing guidance and suggestions for proper action in life, parables frequently use metaphorical language which allows people to more easily discuss difficult or complex ideas. Parables are favoured in the expression of spiritual concepts. The best-known source of parables in Christianity is the Bible, which contains numerous parables in the Gospels section of the New Testament. Jesus' parables, which are attested in many sources and are almost universally seen as being historical, are thought by scholars to have come from a form of Hebrew comparison.CATEGORIES OR TYPES OF PARABLESThere are certain main themes in Jesus Parables. We can group them in four for convenience: The parables that highlight the theme of the Kingdom of God: parables of forgiveness, of morality, of crises of the Kingdom, and of prayer (spirituality) etc. Regarding the Kingdom of God we can approach it from four aspects: The coming of the Kingdom One of the very main teachings of Jesus' Parables is the Kingdom of God. As a reality that grows, Jesus tells the parable of the mustard seed. As a kingdom among us and which has mysterious growing power, Jesus uses the parable of the Leaven. To let us know we need to give attention to the Kingdom, we are presented with the Parable of the Sower. To stress the fact that the Kingdom is for all for the time being, Luke uses the parable of the Weed among the wheat, the parable of the Dragnet. Through the parable of the divided Kingdom, Jesus shows us that the Kingdom is to deliver men/women from demons. Luke records two of these parables: that of the strong man bound and that of the emptied house. The parable of the Wedding guests indicate how joy filled God’s kingdom is.Parables of Forgiveness (The Grace of the Kingdom) The parables of forgiveness or of grace, as we may want to refer to them here indicate how God shows His love to all. How he turns out to be friend of all sinners; How Jesus is the representative of the God of grace and how His Parables of grace were originally answers to criticism of his opponents, those who rejected Him. Some examples of the grace parables include: The parable of the two debtors, which shows us how God’s mercy is entertained more from the truer repentant person; the parable of the Wedding Feast indicating how God’s mercy and 28 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level compassion is extended from those who reject his invitation to the outcasts and marginalized; the parable of the Pharisees and the publican, and indeed, the entire 15th chapter of Luke in which we read the parables of the lost sheep/coin/son all showing us how God’s mercy and forgiveness is for the humbled and repented ones.Moral Parables - The men of the Kingdom Luke presents several parables that have moral lessons regarding how men in the Kingdom of God should live. There are certain requirements for men to live in the Kingdom. In the parable of the tower builder Luke underscores the need for men to do their best as they live in the Kingdom; that men must serve God gladly in His Kingdom Luke exemplifies in the parable of the house holder. Regarding the need to serve God royally and loyally Luke offers us the Parable of the Talents. In the Parable of the Unjust Steward, we are made to take stance with prudence, shrewdness and gumption regarding monetary matters (mammon). In the parable of the Good Samaritan, we are exhorted to live in kindness and to reflect God’s mercy to all regardless of race, tribe, nation etc. In the parable of the Tasteless or Savorless Salt, we are invited to reach out to the world in accomplishment of a mission. Parables about the crisis of the Kingdom There is crisis of the Kingdom. God came with mercy and forgiveness, yet men failed to recognize Him. The Parable of the rich fool is clear about this. The rich man and Lazarus is a parable that advices us to make the best of our days on earth bearing in mind the great reversal at the end of time. Hence, must make use of the prophets, and Christ while we live. The parable of the Faithful servant contrasts those who live faithfully and servants who fail to do so, putting the kingdom in crisis. The parable of the Talents tries to overcome the crisis of not using our talents properly. The parable about the end times warn against unpreparedness for the Parousia.Note that the above classification is only for convenience. It is truly difficult to classify the parables of Jesus. THE PURPOSE OF THE PARABLES OF JESUS From within the Gospels themselves, Jesus states that his use of parables is a) meant to instruct clearly those who have accepted him, and b) to let acceptance of him be based on faith as a gift from God. Jesus does not mean to hide the truth about the Kingdom but to make it plain to those who have faith. c) Jesus told parables as a reaction to the experience of rejection in his public ministry. He meant to use them to change his strategy. d) His parables will be a way of communicating to insiders, those who have accepted him, and a way of driving or putting away outsiders. e) Hence parables help to indicate the quality of spiritual curiosity and receptivity of the hearers. f) They indicate the present arrival of the reign of God, the present arrival of a new age. Most of the parables, therefore, tell of some aspect of the Kingdom as we have seen above. g) His parables are meant to teach us about the mercy God has for sinners. h) They are meant to warn us regarding the imminent judgement. i) They urge us to consider the necessity of an immediate personal response. j) They supply the conditions for discipleship. k) They serve as an indication of the passion and death of Christ. The images he uses were mainly concerned with the life of the ordinary people: features of the countryside, home life, people’s work, and social relationships familiar to the people of his time. This makes the parables easy to be understood and to be remembered. Hence he used them because they were simple and easy to be listened to. He was a Rabbi, and naturally had to use the rabbinic approach of instruction they use on their pupils. 29 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level MIRACLES OF JESUSWhat is a Miracle: From the Latin miraculum, “wonder", the term miracle is generally understood as a wonderful thing. In Biblical literature it refers to wonders of a peculiar kind, or wonders performed by supernatural power as signs of some special mission or gift and explicitly ascribed to God. What is the nature and scope of a miracle? The Nature of a Miracle: We shall use three Greek words to help us unravel the nature of miracles. They include terata (wonders), dynamis (power) and semeion (sign) 1) Terata literally means "wonders", in reference to feelings of amazement excited by their occurrence, hence effects produced in the material creation appealing to, and grasped by, the senses, usually by the sense of sight, at times by hearing, e.g., the baptism of Jesus. When miracles are approached in this light, then not all the miracles of Jesus would fit this definition. There are works of Divine grace that are above the power of nature, and due to God alone. They are miraculous. We call them so because they are supernatural in their effects even if the wonder elements visible to the senses are not perceivable. However, miracles understood in the light of wonder fall under the grasp of the senses, either in the work itself (e.g. raising the dead to life) or in its effects (e.g., the gifts of knowledge). The wonder of the miracle is due to the fact that its cause is hidden, and an effect is expected other than what actually takes place. Hence, by comparison with the ordinary course of things, the miracle is called extraordinary. It is for this reason that some consider miracles as anything contrary to our nature. In this case, the effect produced is above the native powers and forces in creatures of which the known laws of nature are the expression, as raising a dead man to life, e.g., Jarius’ daughter. But there is also a miracle which is said to be outside, or beside, nature when natural forces may have the power to produce the effect, at least in part, but could not of themselves alone have produced it in the way it was actually brought about. Thus the effect in abundance far exceeds the power of natural forces, or it takes place instantaneously without the means or processes which nature employs. In illustration we have the multiplication of loaves by Jesus, the calming of the storm. But every miracle is not of necessity contrary to nature, for there are miracles above or outside nature. 2) The word dynamis, "power" is used in the New Testament to signify: the power of working miracles (Divine power), and the mighty works as the effects of this power. It is because of this power element that miracles are called supernatural, because the effect is beyond the productive power of nature and implies supernatural agency. Hence the power behind miracles adds to meaning of wonder since it establishes the efficient cause (The Divine Power). For this reason miracles in Scripture are called "the finger of God" (Luke 11:20), "the hand of the Lord". Those who think that miracles are unnatural would be wrong, because when God is the efficient cause, it implies the miracle has a place in the designs of God’s Providence. Due to this supernatural power at work, we can distinguish miracles as follows: Miracles of substance: this is an event above the course of nature and beyond its productive powers with regard to its substantial nature, i.e., the effect is of such a kind that no natural power could bring it to pass in any manner or form whatsoever. This is the case with the raising to life of the widow's son (Luke 7). Direct and Mediate Miracles: With regard to the manner in which the effect is produced: a) directly through His own immediate action e.g the cure of the Leper (Luke 5). b) mediately through creatures as means or instruments. In this case, God's power is shown and the effects of the miracle must be ascribed to God, for He works in and through the instruments. He may work through the instrumentality of angels, (e.g. the Annunciations); of men, e.g., the Apostles on mission. We also know that animate things are instruments of Divine power, not because they have any excellence in themselves, but through a special relation to God, e.g., Spittle and mud used to cure a blind man. Hence the contention of some modern writers, that a miracle requires an immediate action of Divine power, is not true. 3) The word semeion means "sign", an appeal to intelligence, and expresses the purpose or final cause of the miracle. Every miracle reveals how God provides for man. Hence, the primary reason why they are performed is for God to receive the glory and for the good of man. This is clearly expressed by Christ in several of his miracles. For God to be glorified, miracles must reflect the 30 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level holiness, goodness, and justice of God. For them to be conducive to the true good of men, they must not be performed by God merely to repair physical defects in His creation, nor are they intended to produce, nor do they produce, disorder or discord; do they contain any element which is wicked, ridiculous, useless, or unmeaning. A miracle attributed to God goes beyond mere wonders, tricks, works of ingenuity, or magic. The efficacy, usefulness, purpose of the work and the manner of performing it clearly show that it must be ascribed to Divine power, not to some superhero or individual human being. This high standing and dignity of the miracle is shown, e.g., in the miracles of the blind man (Luke 18:43), at the miracles of Christ in general (Luke 19:37). Hence miracles are signs of the supernatural world and our connection with it. Talking about the purpose for which miracles are carried out, we can always distinguish secondary ends, subordinate, however, to the primary ends. Thus - Miracles are evidences attesting and confirming the truth of a Divine mission, or of a doctrine of faith or morals. At the working of some miracles, for instance, the Jews see in Christ "the prophet, in whom "God hath visited his people" (Luke 7:16); the disciples believed in Him, so did the many he cured. For Jesus, miracles are proofs that He was sent by God and that He is the Son of God. He claims that His miracles are a greater testimony than the testimony of John. His miracles are supposed to produce faith in those who experience them. In this light, He condemns those who will not believe, as He praises those who do, and exhibits miracles as the signs of the True Faith. For the Apostles miracles confirm Christ's Divinity and mission. - Miracles are wrought to be evidence of true sanctity. (Luke 4:34) - Miracles certainly have both spiritual and temporal benefits. However, the temporal favours are always subordinate to spiritual ends, for they are a reward or a pledge of virtue. Thus miracles as “sign” complete the meaning of miracles as power. It reveals the miracle as an act of God's supernatural Providence over men. It gives a positive content to terata, i.e., "wonder", for, whereas the wonder shows the miracle as a deviation from the ordinary course of nature, the sign gives the purpose of the deviation. This analysis shows that - The miracle is essentially an appeal to knowledge. Its miraculous character is known: o From positive knowledge of natural forces, e.g., the law of gravity, the law that fire burns. o From our positive knowledge of the limits of natural forces. Thus, e.g., we may not know the strength of a man, but we do know that he cannot by himself move a mountain. o A miracle is a manifestation of God's power; so long as this is not clear, we should reject it as such. - Miracles are signs of God's Providence over men; hence they are of high moral character, simple and obvious in the forces at work, in the circumstances of their working, and in their aim and purpose. Now philosophy indicates the possibility, and Revelation teaches the fact that spiritual beings, both good and bad, exist, and possess greater power than man possesses. Apart from the speculative question as to the native power of these beings, we are certain o that God alone can perform those effects which are called substantial miracles, e.g., raising the dead to life, o that miracles performed by the angels, as recorded in the Bible, are always ascribed to God, and Holy Scripture gives Divine authority to no miracles less than Divine; o that Holy Scripture shows the power of evil spirits as strictly conditioned, e.g. evil spirits acknowledging the power of Christ, the express testimony of Christ himself. Granting that these spirits may perform prodigies — i.e., works of skill and ingenuity which, relatively to our powers, may seem to be miraculous — yet these works lack the meaning and purpose which would stamp them as the language of God to men. Categorizing the Miracles of Luke Miracles can then be classified into three categories in the Gospel of Luke: 31 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level 1) Exorcism: The Capernaum demoniac (4:31-37); the Gerasene demoniac (8:26-39); the epileptic demoniac (9:37-43). 2) Raising from the dead: the widow of Nain’s Son (7:11-17); the raising of Jarius’ daughter (8:40-42). exorcise 3) Nature miracles refers to miracles that show Jesus’ command over the forces of nature and the evil one e.g., the miraculous haul or drag of fish (5:1-11); the calming of the storm (8:22-25); the feeding of the five thousands (9:10-17). 4) Healing miracles are those where in Jesus shows his command over sickness and human suffering, e.g., the healing of Simon’s mother-in-law (4:38-39); the crippled woman (13:10-17); the man with the withered hand (6:6-11); the man with dropsy 14:1-6) etc.THE WORLD OF JESUSIt is of great interest to us to study the world in which Jesus lived. We shall consider the political situation at the time and the religious institutions that existed and interacted with Christ.THE POLITICAL SITUATION OF CHRIST’S TIME Palestine in Jesus’ day was part of the Roman Empire, which controlled its various territories in a number of ways. In the East (eastern Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, and Egypt), territories were governed either by kings who were “friends and allies” of Rome (often called “client” kings or, more disparagingly, “puppet” kings) or by governors supported by a Roman army. When Jesus was born, all of Jewish Palestine, as well as some of the neighbouring Gentile areas, was ruled by Rome’s able “friend and ally” Herod the Great. For Rome, Palestine was important not in itself but because it lay between Syria and Egypt, two of Rome’s most valuable possessions. Rome had legions in both countries but not in Palestine. Roman imperial policy required that Palestine be loyal and peaceful, so that it did not undermine Rome’s larger interests. This end was achieved for a long time by permitting Herod to remain king of Judaea (37–4 bc) and allowing him a free hand in governing his kingdom, as long as the requirements of stability and loyalty were met. When Herod died shortly after Jesus’ birth, his kingdom was divided into five parts. Most of the Gentile areas were separated from the Jewish areas, which were split between two of Herod’s sons, Herod Archelaus, who received Judaea and Idumaea (as well as Samaria, which was non- Jewish), and Herod Antipas, who received Galilee and Peraea. (In the New Testament, Antipas is somewhat confusingly called Herod, as in Luke 23:6–12; apparently the sons of Herod took his name, just as the successors of Julius Caesar were commonly called Caesar.) Both sons were given lesser titles than king: Archelaus was ethnarch; Antipas was tetrarch. The non-Jewish areas (except Samaria) were assigned to a third son, Philip, to Herod’s sister Salome, or to the province of Syria. The emperor Augustus deposed the unsatisfactory Archelaus in ad 6, however, and transformed Judaea, Idumaea, and Samaria from a client kingdom into an “imperial province.” Accordingly, he sent a prefect to govern this province. This minor Roman aristocrat (later called a procurator) was supported by a small Roman army of approximately 3,000 men. The soldiers, however, came not from Italy but from nearby Gentile cities, especially Caesarea and Sebaste; presumably the officers were from Italy. During Jesus’ public career, the Roman prefect was Pontius Pilate (ruled ad 26– 36). Although nominally in charge of Judaea, Samaria, and Idumaea, the prefect did not govern his area directly; instead, he relied on local leaders. The prefect and his small army lived in the predominantly Gentile city Caesarea, on the Mediterranean coast, about two days’ march from Jerusalem. Was Jesus a political leader? The question often raised is, “how did Jesus relate with the political environment of his time. It may be thought that Luke presents Jesus as someone in harmony with and subservient to the existing political regime. Those who think this way base their views on the passion, since he32 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level allowed himself to be brought to the political authorities, and on Jesus submissive attitude to the law. They argue that Jesus accepts political supremacy of the Emperor, and that where he declares himself as King, he sets himself in sharp contrast to the existing political order, limiting his kingship to the Temple and over Israel as the Christ, the Son of Man-Son of God. They argue that Jesus manifests his rule in his teaching about the law, and about his role as king in the future (the parousia – the second coming). We see Jesus refusing to cooperate but even actually criticizing the political rulers. To this extent, they hold that Jesus did not oppose the political emperor of his time. The question then is, was Jesus really submissive, or was he a political leader. However, it is undeniable that Jesus was also a political leader of his time. Palestine, as present-day Israel was known during Jesus' time, used to be an occupied province of the Roman Empire, which was then divided into Galilee and Judea. It was then being administered by the ruthless and disciplinarian Pontius Pilate with the cooperation of Jewish puppets like King Herod and the religious elite - the Pharisees. During the time of Jesus, the Jewish people were under the oppressive rule of the Romans. To make matters worst, their own leaders curried favours with the Romans to remain in power and religious leaders engaged in lavish lifestyles out of the taxes they exacted from the people, in addition to what Rome demanded. Poverty was massive and the Jews were restive of their unfortunate lot. This made the Romans particularly strict in maintaining peace and order in their occupied territory. They saw to it that any dissent, or what they perceived to be as one, is promptly suppressed, such as the arrest and beheading of John the Baptist when he started attracting massive following out of his teachings on repentance and baptism.Enter Jesus of Nazareth. Son of a carpenter or a mason, as some historians speculate, Jesus grew up as a poor boy in a small village where he saw poverty everywhere. This, historians believe, might have been one of the major reasons why Jesus grew up to advocate for the poor that infuriated those in power and led to his crucifixion. Jesus introduced revolutionary ideas that ran counter with the conventional wisdom of the time. He brought hope and promise of a better life to the poor that gained him mass following, which made the Romans and religious elite uneasy. While the message of Jesus was spiritual in nature, such as by promising to the poor the Kingdom of God, everlasting life, love for one's enemies, those in power saw his growing ministry as a threat to them - an erosion of Roman political authority and religious influence of the Pharisees. In a real sense Jesus was a political leader because he espoused ideas that run counter with the established order. He contravenes the existing social class stratification. He criticized Herod, the Great, calling him “that fox”. The line between religion and politics was blurred during those days; in fact Jerusalem was the centre of both religious and political power. But unlike most political leaders like the Zealots, who went against the establishment, Jesus did not advocate the overthrow of the government nor called on the people to rebel against the Pharisees. He did not call for civil disobedience; rather he asked them to give what is due to Ceasar, although his counsel reminds Pontius Pilate of his position in the order of creation. He even proclaimed that he did not come to destroy the law but to fulfil it. But those in power thought otherwise. Yet we cannot help seeing that he points the way to social and political order which neither the Romans nor any other group would be able to contain. However the Romans and Jewish religious leaders viewed Jesus, his teachings endured and spread like wildfire that even his death and the passage of time could not contain. The irony is that the Roman Empire - under whose power and authority Jesus was executed - eventually embraced33 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level his teachings and adopted Christianity as its official religion. Today about two billion people, around one-third of the world's population, are Christians. Amazing how a poor boy from a small village could become the centre of a world religion.THE RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS AT THE TIME OF CHRISTA. THE TEMPLE AND THE PRIESTHOOD The Temple was the official and central place of Jewish worship. Any pious Jew in or out of Jerusalem had the desire to visit the temple at least once a year, during one of the annual feast. In the New Testament, Jesus shows a great respect for the temple. He appears to have fulfilled his duties as a pious Jew, taking part in public temple worship. At his presentation, the finding of Jesus and the cleansing of the temple, we get the notion that the temple belonged to His Father, and being there was doing His Father’s business. The encounter with the scribes and teachers probably took place in the temple porticoes or in the temple school room. Jesus also had discussions and taught in the temple. (Lk 20:1, 22:53) Jesus calls the temple the House of God (6:4), a house of prayer (19:46). In 19:45f, he cleanses the temple. All the synoptics tell of the destruction of the Temple (Lk 21:6), which came to be theologically seen as the destruction of Christ’s body. In this episode therefore, we find the Christian meaning of the Temple – the Body of Christ – which is identified with the Church, with Christ as the cornerstone and the Christians are the living stones of this Temple. The Church is now the place of God’s presence. From the first Jewish settlement in Palestine until the time of David, sacrifices could be offered at number of sanctuaries. Gradually, the temple became the only place. The Temple Solomon built was destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar in 587 BC, but after the exile it was rebuilt. Since the prescribed temple rites necessitated the purchase of sacrificial animals, the regular influx of pilgrims had a significant positive impact on the economic life of the time. The Temple itself required financial support from the Jews of Palestine and the Diaspora, and since the priests were looking after it, they too had to be supported. There were three ways of providing for the temple: the priests were to receive the choicest portion, they were to receive the “first fruits” to be offered by farmers and shepherds annually, and they were to receive a portion from the Levites of the Tithes paid to them. For the running cost of the Temple, the Roman Emperors accorded to the Jews of the empire the freedom to take up annual contributions (half-shekel – temple tax). The priests themselves could take wives from non-priestly families, but they must be undefiled virgins or a widow of pure Israelite origin. A high priest married only an undefiled Israelite virgin. The priesthood enjoyed a position of great importance, greater than during the monarchy. The priesthood was hereditary. B. SYNAGOGUE The Greek sunagogé, from which comes the Latin synagoga, and the English synagogue, means a meeting, an assembly; and is used by the Septuagint to translate the Aramaic word for Church. In the course of time, the single word synagogue came to mean not only the meeting but the meeting-house, the teaching thereof and, in the broadest sense, the body politic of the Jews. This broad sense of the word synagogue is seen in John's use of those, "excommunicated" or "put out of the synagogue" (cf. 9:22; 12:42; 16:2). Another Greek name for synagogue in use among Hellenistic Jews, is proseuké, house of prayer. Some other name for the Synagogue is the Sabbath- house. The Origins of the Synagogue 34 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level The beginning is obscure. The Jerusalem Talmud (in Ex., xviii, 20) dates it from the time of Moses. However, this tradition seems unreliable. It was probably during the Babylonian captivity that the synagogue became a national feature of Hebrew worship. Afar from their Temple, the exiled Jews gathered into local meeting-houses for public worship. Sacrifice was denied them; prayer in common was not. The longer their exile from the national altar of sacrifice, the greater became their need of houses of prayer; this need was met by an ever-increasing number of synagogues, scattered throughout the land of exile. From Babylonia this national system of synagogue worship was brought to Jerusalem. That the synagogue dates many generations earlier than Apostolic times, is clear from the authority of St. James: They preached about Moses in every city in the synagogue every Sabbath (Acts 15:21).The organization of the Synagogue The "sons of the synagogue" were governed by a council called "house of justice"; or Sanhedrin or simply "council". The members of this council were twenty-three in larger towns, seven in smaller; and were called "rulers" (Luke 8:41), or presbyters, (elders) (Luke 7:3). The "rulers of the synagogue" had it in their power to punish by excommunication, scourging and death. (a) Excommunication from the synagogal community was termed ANATHEMA (accursed). (b) Scourging was thirty-nine stripes (2 Corinthians 11:24) laid on by the "servant of the synagogue” for minor offences. Three elders made up a tribunal competent to inflict the penalty of scourging. (c) The death penalty was inflicted by the Sanhedrin in full session of twenty-three elders. Worship in the Synagogue The "ruler of the synagogue", (Luke 8:49; 13:14;) presided over the synagogue and its services. This presidency did not prevent the "sons of the synagogue" from freely officiating. Witness the freedom with which Our Lord and St. Paul stood up to explain the Scriptures in the various synagogues of Palestine and the Diaspora. The "servant", handed the scrolls to the readers and taught the children. There were five parts in the synagogue service: (1) The ‘Shema’ is made up of Deuteronomy 6:4-9; 11:13-21; Numbers 15:37-41 — two opening blessings for morning and evening, one closing blessing for morning and two for evening. These benedictions are named Shema from the opening word, "Hear, O Israel; Jahweh our God is one Jahweh". (2) The Prayer is called "the eighteenth", because of its eighteen benedictions and petitions. The twelfth petition of the Palestinian recension shows that the Christians were mentioned in this daily prayer of the synagogue: "May the Christians and heretics perish in a moment; May they be blotted out of the book of life; May they not be written with the just." (3) The Torah was read on Sabbaths, feast-days, new moons, and half feast-days of Mosaic institution. Esdras inaugurated the reading of the Torah on Mondays, Thursdays, and Saturdays. (4) The Prophets too were read or second part of the Hebrew Canon. (5) There followed The Scripture Lesson. Even by the time of Christ, the explanation of Scripture was part of the synagogue liturgy (Matthew 4:23; Mark 1:21; 6:2). Any of the brethren might be called upon to give the "word of exhortation". C. THE SANHEDRIN This is the supreme council and court of justice among the Jews. The name Sanhedrin is derived originally from the Greek word sunédrion, which, variously modified, passed at an unknown period into the Aramaic vocabulary. The Origins of the Sanhedrin: The Jewish tradition naturally gave the Sanhedrin one of the most venerable and hallowed antiquity. Some scholars tried to show that the Council of the seventy Elders founded by Moses included the Sanhedrin (Numbers 11:16); others pretended to discover the first traces of the Sanhedrin in the tribunal created by Josaphat (2 Chronicles 19:8): but neither of these institutions bears, in its composition or in its attributions, any resemblance to the Sanhedrin as we know it. It is not clear if it originated even from the Great Synagogue founded by Esdras,35 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level according to Jewish tradition. This Synagogue was considered as the connecting link between the last of the Prophets and the first Scribes. The first undisputed mention we possess touching the Sanhedrin of Jerusalem is connected with the reign of Antiochus the Great (223-187 B.C.). From that time on, we are able to follow the history of the Sanhedrin until its disappearance in the overthrow of the Jewish nation. As under the Greek rulers the Jews were allowed a large measure of self-government, many points of civil and religious administration fell to the lot of the high priests and the Sanhedrin to settle. But when, after the Maccabean wars, both the royal and priestly powers were invested in the person of the Hasmonean kings, the authority of the Sanhedrin was naturally thrown in the background by that of the autocratic rulers. This notwithstanding, the Sanhedrin, majority of who were Pharisees, continued to be "the house of justice of the Hasmoneans". At some time in history, the Sadducees dominated the Sanhedrin, but this did not last long. Under Roman domination, the Sanhedrin came to experience a limited sphere of influence to the city of Jerusalem and the neighbouring district (57 B.C.). In 47, their authority was again restored over the entire Jewish nation. One of the first acts of the now all-powerful assembly was to pass judgment upon Herod, the son of Antipater, accused of cruelty in his government. The revengeful prince was not likely to forget this insult. No sooner, indeed, had he established his power at Jerusalem (37 B.C.), than forty-five of his former judges, were put to death. However, Herod allowed The Sanhedrin to continue, but this new Sanhedrin, filled with his creatures, was henceforth utilized as a mere tool at his beck and call. After the death of Herod, the territorial jurisdiction of the assembly was curtailed again and reduced to Judea, Samaria, and Idumea. But this condition of affairs was not to last; for after the annexation of Judea to the Roman province of Syria (A.D. 6), the Sanhedrin, under the control of the procurators, became the supreme authority of the Jewish people; only capital sentences pronounced by the assembly perhaps needed confirmation from the Roman officer before they could be carried into execution. Such was the state of things during the public life of Jesus Christ, the Saviour and the following thirty years (Luke 22:66). The Composition of the Sanhedrin: The Sanhedrin consisted of seventy-one members, president included. Jewish tradition appealed to Numbers 11:16, to justify this number. The New-Testament writers seem to divide the members into three classes: the chief priests, the scribes, and the elders; but it might be wrong to regard these three classes as forming a regular hierarchy, for in the New Testament itself the word "elders", or the phrase "the elders of the people", is quite frequently equivalent to "members of the Sanhedrin". They were styled "elders” not only because of the Mosaic tradition of Numbers, but also because they were expected to show maturity of age and respectability, which were the moral and intellectual qualifications required for membership. It was natural that many of its members should be chosen from among men specially given to the study of the Law; this is why some scribes were found in the Sanhedrin. Most of those scribes, during the last forty years of the institution's existence, were Pharisees, whereas the members belonging to the priestly class represented in the assembly the ideas of the Sadducees. Accordingly, the members were appointed and the vacancies were filled up, we are unable to state; it seems that various customs prevailed on this point at different periods; however, it is clear that politics interfered more than once in the transaction. At any rate we are told an imposition of hands, took place at the formal installation of the new appointees; and there is every reason to believe that the appointment was for life. The President of the Sanhedrin: The President of the Sanhedrin was the High Priest, who was the supreme magistrate. It was natural that, in an assembly containing many scribes and called upon to decide many points of legislation, there should be, next to the Sadducean presidents, men perfectly conversant with all the intricacies of the Law.The Jurisdiction and procedure of the Sanhedrin: We have seen above how the jurisdiction of the Sanhedrin varied in extension at different periods. At the time of the public life of the Saviour, only the eleven toparchies of Judaea were subject to the Great Sanhedrin of Jerusalem; however, de facto the Jews all the world over acknowledged its authority. As the supreme court of justice of the 36 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level nation, the Sanhedrin was appealed to when the lower courts were unable to come to a decision; moreover, it had the exclusive right of judgment in matters of special importance, as for instance the case of a false prophet, accusations against the high priest, the sending out of an army in certain circumstances, the enlarging of the city of Jerusalem, or of the Temple courts, etc.; the few instances mentioned in the New Testament exemplify the cases to which the competency of the Sanhedrin extended; in short, all religious matters and all civil matters not claimed by Roman authority were within its attributions; and the decisions issued by its judges were to be held inviolable. Whether or not the Sanhedrin had been deprived, at the time of Jesus Christ, of the right to carry death-sentences into execution, is a much-disputed question. On the one hand, that such a curtailing of the Sanhedrin's power did actually take place seems implied in the cry of the Jews: "It is not lawful for us to put any man to death" (John 18:31. Still we see in Acts 7, St. Stephen put to death by the Sanhedrin. Some scholars, however, deny that the Romans ever deprived the Sanhedrin of any part of its power: the Sanhedrin, they say, owing to the frequency of cases half- religious and half-political in nature, in order not to alienate the feelings of the people and at the same time not to incur the displeasure of the Roman authorities, practically surrendered into the hands of the latter the right to approve capital sentences; the cry of the Jews: "it is not lawful for us to put any man to death", was therefore rather a flattery to the procurator than the expression of truth. For judgments of the latter description a quorum of at least twenty-three members was required: a majority of one vote sufficed for the acquittal; for a condemnation a majority of two votes was necessary, except when all the members of the court (seventy-one) were present. Since in spite of the identity of names there is little in common between the old Great Sanhedrin of Jerusalem and the schools of Jamnia and Tiberias, it is quite useless to dwell on the latter, as well as on the Kalla assemblies of Babylon. But it will not be amiss to mention the fact that before the fall of Jerusalem there were, besides the Great Sanhedrin we have dealt with above, local courts of justice sometimes designated by the same name, in all the Jewish cities.D. THE PHARISEES The name Pharisee means “separated”. Hence, Pharisees were a politico-religious sect or faction among the adherents of later Judaism. They came into existence as a class about the third century B.C. The Origins of the Pharisees: After the exile, the system of the monarchs in Israel was now a thing of the past; in its place the Jews created a community which was half State, half Church. One of the main characteristics of the Pharisees then, was this growing sense of superiority to the heathen and idolatrous nations among whom they found themselves. In this way, they were taught insistently to separate themselves from their neighbours. "And now make confession to the Lord the God of your fathers, and do his pleasure, and separate yourselves from the people of the land, and from your strange wives" (Ezra 10:11). Intermarriage with the heathen was strictly forbidden and many such marriages previously contracted, even of priests, were dissolved in consequence of the legislation promulgated by Esdras. Such was the state of things in the third century when the newly introduced Hellenism threatened Judaism with destruction. The more zealous among the Jews drew apart calling themselves Chasidim or "pious ones", i.e., they dedicated themselves to the realization of the ideas inculcated by Esdras, the holy priest and doctor of the law. In the violent conditions incidental to the Maccabean wars these "pious men", sometimes called the Jewish Puritans, became a distinct class. They were called Pharisees, meaning those who separated themselves from the heathen, and from the heathenizing forces and tendencies which constantly invaded the boundaries of Judaism (1 Maccabees 1:11; 2 Maccabees 4:14 sq.; cf. Josephus Antiq., XII, 5:1). During these persecutions of Antiochus (the Maccabean persecution), the Pharisees became the most rigid defenders of the Jewish religion and traditions. For this reason, many suffered martyrdom (1 Maccabees 1:41 sq.). They were so devoted to the prescriptions of the Law that on one occasion when attacked by the Syrians on the Sabbath they refused to defend themselves (1 Maccabees 2:42; ibid., 5:3 sq.). For the Pharisees, it was an abomination to even eat at the same board with the 37 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level heathens or have any social relations with them whatsoever. Owing to their heroic devotedness, they were mostly admired, and their influence over the people became great and far- reaching, and in the course of time they, instead of the priests, became the sources of authority.Pharisees in the time of Christ: In the time of Our Lord, that is how they were powerful and occupied a prestigious position. Indeed, they sat and taught in "Moses' seat" (occupied the chair of Moses). This prestige naturally provoked in them much arrogance and conceit, and led to a perversion (falsification or twisting) in many respects, of the conservative (or traditional) ideals of which they had been such staunch supporters. In many passages of the Gospels, Christ is quoted as warning the multitude against them in scathing (sacarstic, biting, contemptuous, provoking or scornful) terms. "The scribes and the Pharisees occupy the chair of Moses. All things therefore whatsoever they shall say to you, observe and do: but according to their works do ye not; for they say and do not. For they bind heavy and insupportable burdens, and lay them on men's shoulders; but with a finger of their own they will not move them. And all their works they do for to be seen of men. For they make their phylacteries broad, and enlarge their fringes. And they love the first places at feasts, and the first chairs in the synagogues. And salutations in the market place, and to be called by men, Rabbi" (Matthew 23:1-8). Then follows the terrible arraignment (or accusation or indictment) of the scribes and Pharisees for their hypocrisy, their rapacity, and their blindness (Mt:23:13-36). After the conflicts with Rome (A.D. 66-135) Pharisaism became practically synonymous with Judaism. In this way, the true Pharisee at the time was not a negative connotation. It revealed a certain moral dignity and greatness, a marked tenacity of purpose at the service of high, patriotic, and religious ideals. As contrasted with the Sadducees, the Pharisees represented the democratic tendency; contrasted with the priesthood, they stood for both the democratic and the spiritualizing tendency. By virtue of the Law no man was allowed to exercise a function in the Temple unless he was able to trace his descent from a priestly family. So the Pharisees’ main function could only be found in teaching and preaching. Their work was chiefly connected with the synagogues. In a sense, then, Pharisaism helped to clear the ground and prepare the way for Christianity. It was the Pharisees who wanted a nation ruled by God as the prophets taught. Hence they opposed any rule by foreigners. They made common the belief in the resurrection of the body and life after death and in the existence of angels. In a word, their pedagogical influence was an important factor in training the national will and purpose for the introduction of Christianity. Their great work of teaching and preaching, however, was marred by many defects and limitations. Though standing for the spiritualizing tendency, Pharisaism developed a proud and arrogant prevailing attitude (orthodoxy) and an exaggerated formalism. Indeed, it is said the haughtiness of a Jew was found 7 times in the Pharisees. Because of this, they insisted on ceremonial details at the expense of the more important precepts of the Law (Matthew 23:23-28). They were more concerned with considering themselves descendants of Abraham (Matthew 3:9) and remained blind to the deeper spiritual implications of this. For this reason, they created a narrow, exclusive nationalism incapable of understanding a universal Church destined to include Gentile as well as Jew. This exclusivism, together with their over valuation of external observances of the Law, caused the Pharisees to be ranged in opposition to what is known self-righteousness and thus they incurred not only the very strong reproaches of the John the Baptist, (Matthew 3:7 seq.), but also of the Saviour Himself (Matthew 23:25 sqq.). The Pharisees are seen at their best when contrasted with the Zealots on one hand, and with the Herodians on the other. Unlike the Zealots, it was their policy to abstain from the appeal to armed force. They saw foreign government as punishment for the sins of the nations. The nations should submit, though such an occupation is a profanation of the Holy Land. It was their belief that the God of the nation controlled all historic destinies, and that in His own good time He would satisfy the long frustrated desires of His chosen people. Meanwhile the duty of all true Israelites consisted in whole-hearted devotion to the Law, and to the manifold observances which their numerous traditions had engrafted upon it. To this they must add an attitude of patient waiting for38 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level the expected manifestation of the Divine Will. This is due to their belief that human freedom must be controlled by Divine Providence.How Luke presents them: Luke, like Matthew is very bitter toward the Pharisees. He presents them in an unfavourable light: hypocrites. Yet in an unbiased manner he also shows that they represent what has once been the highest and purest form of Judaism. Jesus had controversies with Pharisees alone over the Sabbath (Lk6:1-5). They derided Christ, and were attacked for being covetous (16:14-13). At the triumphant entry into Jerusalem, some of the Pharisees said ‘Master, rebuke your disciples’ (19:39-40). On several occasions they, together with the Scribes, had confrontations with Jesus. At the healing of the sick of the palsy (5:21-24) – the issue at stake was blasphemy and the forgiveness of sins by mere man; at the feast given by Matthew or Levi, they questioned Jesus’ association with sinners and publicans (5:30-32); at the healing of the man with the withered hand, they had a Sabbath controversy with Jesus (6:7-11). The same is true about the man with dropsy (14:1-6). Our Lord uttered woes against them (11:39-53). Summarily, they opposed Jesus and His teachings, plotted His death (Matt 12:14). They were denounced by Him (Matt 23). Their characteristic teachings included: belief in oral as well as written Law; resurrection of the human body; belief in the existence of a spirit world; immortality of the soul; predestination; future rewards and punishments based upon works. Matt 9:11-14; Luke 11:37-44; Acts 15:5; 23:6-8. E. THE SADDUCCEES: How did they come about? This is another politico-religious sect of the Jews during the late post-Exile and New-Testament period. The name is associated with the proper name "Sadoc", Sadducee being equivalent to Sadokite. They became the dominant priestly party during the Greek and Roman period of Jewish history, and the name, whether bestowed seriously or in irony, originated doubtless in the fact that they pretended to be descendants of Sadoc. Zadock (Sadoc) was a prominent high-priest in the times of David and Solomon (1 Kings 1:8, 26, 32; 2:35; 1 Chronicles 29:22; cf. Ezekiel 40:46; 42:19; etc.). As a prominent political party they advocated some Hellenizing tendencies in which they were strongly opposed by the Pharisees. At some point in time, the power of the Sadducees was supreme, and though the opposing faction of the Pharisees came into favour during the regency of Alexandra Salome (780-69 B.C.), the Sadducees regained their ascendancy under Aristobulus II (69-63 B.C.) whom they supported in his conflicts with the Romans and others. When Pompey captured Jerusalem (63 B.C.) he executed many of their leaders, as did also Herod the Idumean on his accession to power (37 B.C.). The Sadducees retained however, their traditional priestly functions and also a varying predominance in the Sanhedrin, but even in this respect their influence was much diminished through the policy of Herod and later of the Roman procurators of Judea, who, arbitrarily and mainly for political reasons, appointed and removed the high-priests at will. During this period and down to the destruction of Jerusalem the Sadducees were naturally unpopular with the masses because of their marked tendency to side closely with the ruling power, while the patriotic and exclusive Pharisees became more and more the leaders of the people. Among the religious difference between the two parties may be mentioned the denial on the part of the Sadducees of the resurrection, the immortality of the soul and the existence of angels (Matthew 22:23; Mark 12:18; Acts 23:8). They rejected likewise the oral traditions which the Pharisees maintained and emphasized as a Divinely ordained supplement to the written law. While the firmness and exclusiveness and other characteristics of the Pharisees have been indelibly impressed on all subsequent generations of Judaism, the influence of the indifferent and materialistic Sadducees vanished completely as soon as the Jews ceased to be a nation. Summarily therefore, the beliefs of the Sadducees included: acceptance only of the Law and rejection of oral tradition; denial of bodily resurrection; immortality of the soul; existence of a spirit world (Mark 12:18; Luke 20:27). The Sadducees were a relatively small group, but they generally 39 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level held the high priesthood. They denounced John the Baptist (Matt 3:7-8) and Jesus (Matt 16:6,11,12). They actively opposed Christ as the chief priests (Matt 21:12ff; Mark 11:15ff; Luke 19:47) and questioned Jesus on the Resurrection (Luke 20:22ff)F. SCRIBES In the New-Testament period the scribes were the professional interpreters of the Law in the Jewish synagogues. The origin of the profession goes back to Israel’s history when they returned from exile, and its subsequent growth and importance resulted naturally from the formal and legalistic trend of Jewish piety during the post-Exilic period. The Law was revered as the precise expression of God's will, and by its multifarious prescriptions the daily life of every pious Jew was regulated in all its minute details. Love of the Law was the essence of piety, and the just or righteous were they who walked "in all the commandments and justifications of the Lord without blame" (Luke, I, 6). But as these commandments and justifications were exceedingly numerous, complicated, and often obscure, the needs of popular guidance called into existence a class of men whose special occupation was to study and expound the Law. The scribes were to teach in Israel the commandments and judgment". They were pious men who through love of the Divine law occupied themselves in collecting, editing, and studying the sacred literature of the Hebrews and in explaining it to the people. The earlier scribes belonged to the class of priests and Levites (Ezra 7:12; Nehemiah 8:7, 13; 2 Chronicles 34:13) who were originally the official interpreters of the Law, but unlike other priestly duties, the study and exposition of Holy Writ could be engaged in by pious laymen, and thus little by little the scribal profession became differentiated from the priesthood, while the latter remained chiefly occupied with the ever-growing sacrificial and ritualistic functions. When Hellenism threatened to overthrow the Jewish religion, the scribes joined the party of the zealous Assideans (1 Maccabees 7:12, 13), who were ready to die for their faith. A few aristocratic members of the priesthood favoured the Hellenistic tendencies. This resulted in a certain opposition between the two classes; the scribes, through their devotion to the Law, acquired great influence with the people while the priesthood lost much of its prestige. As a natural consequence, the scribes as a class became narrow, proud and exclusive. Later, they became the leaders of the new party of the Pharisees, and it is with the latter that we find them associated in the New- Testament records. They never wielded any political power, but they were admitted to the Sanhedrin on a par with the chief priests and elders and thus enjoyed official recognition. With the increasing formalism, which their influence doubtless helped to develop, the character of the scribes and their activities underwent a marked change. They neglected the deeper and more spiritual aspects of the Law, and from being men of sacred letters they became mainly jurists who devoted most of their attention to mere quibbles and subtle casuistry. Together with the Pharisees they are represented in the Gospels as being very ambitious of honour (Luke 11:43, 45, 46; 20:46), and as making void the weightier precepts of the Law by their perverse interpretations by means of which they had gradually laid a most heavy burden upon the people. They are also rebuked by Christ because of the undue importance ascribed by them to the "traditions of the elders". Their teaching on this point was that Moses himself had delivered to Israel an oral as well as a written Law. This oral Law, according to their theory, had come down in an authentic form through the Prophets to Esdras, the first and greatest of the scribes, and rested practically on the same Divine authority as the written Word. Through this conception of an oral law to which all their traditional customs and interpretations, however recent, were referred, the scribes were led into many departures from the spirit of the written Law (Mark 7:13), and even with regard to the latter their teaching was characterized by a slavish literalism. There was an ever-accumulating mass of legal traditions and legal decisions. Together with the written precepts these traditions constituted the perfect rule of conduct which every Jew should follow. But while the scribes devoted their chief attention to the Law, both written and oral, they also elaborated in fantastic and arbitrary fashion, teachings of an edifying character from the historical and didactic contents of the Old Testament. 40 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level THE PROLOGUE THE TIME OF THE PROMISE (Lk 1:1 – 4:21)I. THE INFANCY NARRATIVES (THE INFANCY GOSPEL) Lk 1:1-2:52CHAPTER ONEA. THE PREFACE: Lk 1:1-4 The preface is important for many reasons. From here we learn the occasion of Luke's writing: (many have undertaken to compile, so he too wants to do something similar but peculiar). This section reveals Luke's purpose: recording the memories of eyewitnesses for future generations, collecting stories about Jesus for preaching and instruction of new converts, record of those things about Jesus which would help to solve the problems being faced by the Church in crisis at his time. Luke puts all these down in the finest Greek of his time. His style (best classical style of his day) and method are visible in these few lines. These lines shed light on the authorship question and reveals Luke's audience. Helped by Acts, this section supports internal evidence that the author of the Gospel is the author of Acts. He writes to Theophilus, whom we have considered to be more than just a man of high standing. The choice of a non-Jewish name even suggests a wider audience and reveals Luke's universal character. We understand Luke intends that Christianity is spread through catechesis, so that it is seen as an authentic religion. This section also gives room for us to determine if Luke is really a historian or an evangelist. Is he really concerned with facts or with the significance of the facts themselves? Luke's plan is, therefore, to present “an orderly account.” What is this order? Indeed, this expression sheds light into the structure of Luke's Gospel. It is an order that is less Chronological and biographical, but more theological. His purpose is that people like Theophilus might “know the truth” concerning the things which they have been informed. Luke's aim was to establish the authenticity and trustworthiness of the Christian faith. APPLICATION: Knowledge of the truth about Christianity is still important to the Christian, and also to those who interact with Christianity at various capacities and who are at times called to pass sentences at human courts regarding Christian issues. But knowledge of the truth truly implies knowledge of Christ. Knowing Christ is: believing that God through his only Son wants to give us life in abundance. The Christian then, must read the Gospel of Luke as one in which Luke seeks to guide us to experience the liberation Christ brings as a prophet and Messiah. He frees us from fears, anxieties, bitterness or hatred. Luke’s Gospel will serve as an opportunity for all who read it to make value judgment and choices, option for Christ. The Gospel of the Infancy (Lk 1:5-2:52) This is one of Luke's creative innovations. It is considered as an addition to the rest of the Gospel, written afterwards, because reference is not made of this section in the Gospel, but the reverse is true. As regards the content, Luke interweaves two events, greatly contrasting them: the birth of John the Baptist and the birth of Jesus Christ. Matthew leaves out the birth of John. Regarding his purpose Luke shows that in these two events, and what flowed from them a new and decisive epoch had begun in human history, in the history of all. This section therefore, is rightly called the Gospel of the Infancy. The title is apt because the section is really good news. Regarding the themes Luke highlights, throughout this section, he runs the theme God brings salvation. It is seen from the names of John (meaning The Lord is gracious) and Jesus (The Lord is salvation). God reveals himself as one with whom everything is possible, a sympathetic and gracious God toward 41 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level Zechariah and Elizabeth were too old to have a son, Mary a virgin who conceived, the shepherds held as low people who received the news joyfully, Simeon and Anna who have spent their lives in waiting can now give thanks. Man can only wait, hope, trust, receive, praise but God saves. When we consider the characterisation almost all those mentioned in the infancy narratives are influenced by the Spirit in one way or another. Each of the central characters in this section are filled with the unbelievable. Zechariah exclaims “How shall I know this?” Mary said “How can this be …” The people queried at John’s birth “what then will this child be?” Simeon and Anna declared the unbelievable has happened “the consolation of Israel has come.” In this section, Luke's style is principally that of contrast. He contrasts or parallels the origins of John and Jesus, both have their births announced by an angel, the news comes as a surprise to all including their parents, as seen already, they are both circumcised on the 8th day, both of their names are assigned by the angel, a parent interprets each child’s coming in a canticle. Yet, Luke is careful in showing that Jesus is superior to John. Another feature of the background here is the Temple. Luke highlights the Temple, because in Jerusalem it was the place of God’s presence. In Simeon’s song, a tension signal is sent between the Temple and what Christ himself will represent. Salvation is to come no longer through the Temple, but through Christ. Jerusalem here becomes the scene of the drama of salvation for Luke. His introduction of aspects of the Roman Empire helps Luke to stress that Jesus not Ceasar is Lord and that the Gentiles are to receive this Gospel as a call to faithThe Annunciation of Birth of John the Baptist (1:5-25) In this section, we find Luke paying attention to dates. He is therefore employing his skills as a historian. The fact that these dates are not precise makes Luke's writing more concerned with meaning than exact dates. John the Baptist is presented as an offspring of an old priestly line on both sides of the house. His Father, Zechariah was one of the 800 belonging to the line of Abijah who had been one of the 24 grandsons of the first High Priest, Aaron. Since service in the temple was assigned by lot, many never had the opportunity. Zechariah was fortunate and certainly most joyful. The priest entered the sanctuary to burn incense, while the people waited outside. The rising of the smoke of incense was associated with prayer. The angel appears on the right side, suggesting a place that is befitting of honour for a heavenly messenger. The childlessness of Zechariah and Elizabeth were no less a punishment, since they were all pleasing to God. Indeed, the Jews considered the gift of children as a blessing from God. They also considered childlessness as a curse. Hence, in their personal nature, Zechariah and Elizabeth could be said to represent the bitter disappointment of generations of pious Jews who were earnestly “looking for the consolation of Israel” but found it forever delayed. Luke however, stresses the miraculous nature of John’s birth. Zechariah’s reaction after the annunciation was fear. The angel’s pronouncement is referred to as good news. This has a two fold aspect: God’s gracious action to save the world, and the special role Zechariah’s family was to have in this: “God has answered your prayers.” From the presentation we know the age of the Messiah has come. The name, the manner of life, and the mission of this son of Zechariah are all significant. John: God’s graciousness, signals the beginning of God’s actual fulfilment of his promises of redemption. His manner of life will be that of a Nazarite: a Nazarite was one who is totally dedicated to the service of God: such dedication was accompanied by special vows, such as not drinking wine or strong drink, or not having a hair-cut (like Samson). John’s mission is to fulfil the prophecy of Malachi with which the Old Testament ends: that one like Elijah will come again to prepare a way for the Lord. Before the Messiah comes, another would arise “in the spirit and power of Elijah” to call Israel to repentance.42 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level Elijah had done this during the defeat of the sons of Baal, provoked by Jezebel under the reign of King Ahab. This text helps us to realize that Luke was also interested in showing that the New Testament was the fulfilment of the Old. It is a sign that though he introduces his Gospel as one to a gentile Theophilus, the Jews are not left out, since he begins with the Jewish cultural heritage. Zechariah’s doubts will be contrasted with Mary’s acceptance (fiat). The way the people waited for Zechariah is a dramatic technique to highlight the expectation of the Jews. John’s conception occurred in a lowly manner, unknown to the world. John has been termed the forerunner, the harbinger, the herald, the messenger before Christ, the precursor, the predecessor, the prototype, the forbearer. The Annunciation of the Birth of Jesus This scene and the preceding one share many things in common: the angelic visitor, the proclamation, the overcoming of a human deficiency (age and barrenness in the first instance, youth and virginity in the second), and a sign to legitimate the prophecy. If there are these similarities, the points of contrasts are even more striking. Though the form of the angel’s statement in each case is so similar, the difference in content concerning the identity and role of the respective children attracts us more. John will be great before the Lord, but Jesus will be great and Son of the Most High. John will prepare a people, but Jesus will rule the people. John’s role is temporary. Jesus’ kingdom will never end. John is to be a prophet, but Jesus more than another prophet, will be the Son of God. John will be “filled with the Holy Spirit” as a prophet, but the overshadowing of the Spirit and Power will make Jesus “the Holy One”. Although Luke makes all these clearer in his writing for now, he underlines the superiority of Jesus to John, or even to the Davidic King. We find another deliberate contrast between Zechariah and Mary. It is worth remarking here that Luke concentrates on Mary, to be true to his characteristic as a Gospel that favours women. In contrast to Zechariah, Mary holds no official position among the people, she is not described as righteous in terms of observing the Torah, and her experience does not take place in a cultic (place of sacrifice – Temple) setting. She is among the most powerless people in society: she is young in a world that values age; female in a world ruled by men; poor in a stratified economy. She has neither husband nor child to make her existence lawful. Through her we understand the Lukan God as one of surprises and paradoxes, who ensures the great reversal. Mary’s mode of response is more positive than Zechariah’s. Zechariah doubted, Mary asks for clarification, so her response was in faithful obedience. There is also the contrast in signs. Zechariah is struck mute, Mary is told of the fulfilment of an earlier prophecy. THE VISITATION/THE MAGNIFICAT: SONG OF MARY (1:46-55) Mary hastens to visit Elizabeth as suggested by the angel. This encounter displays several acts of Luke's literary art. Luke has a way of taking short events and blowing them up into longer, sustained narratives. Here he brings characters from the two annunciation narratives together. There is little action apart from that Mary goes and returns. But through dialogue Luke sustains the episode. The passage is dominated by the Song of Mary which shows another technique of composition common to Luke and to Greek historians: that is the use of speeches. The Song of Mary, the Magnificat is borrowed from Hannah’s song on the birth of Samuel (1 Sam 2:1-10), which expressed the Jewish hope and longing for God to act in a way which would change the injustice in the world and establish the supremacy of Israel. Until then Israel had been treated as an underdog by pagan nations. In the Magnificat, Mary’s praise for what God had done to her personally widens out to include what God does for “all who fear him”, in every age, including43 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level what God is doing for Israel by the birth of the Messiah. Hence Luke's universalism stands out. We see in these lines of Mary, the principal theme of salvation promised to the lowly being stressed. The theme of the great reversal abounds here. Mary’s condition of lowliness reverses to exaltation; there is a recall of past reversals the mighty are brought down, the lowly are raise, the starving are filled with good things, the rich become poor. Such reversals are announced by Jesus in the Beatitudes. The song evokes Lukan them of mercy, the mercy shown by God to those who fear Him, but also as a protection of Israel in fulfilment of God’s promise to Abraham. This song reveals plenty of symbolisms: Mary is made to represent Israel, a kind of personification. The mercy shown her reflects the mercy shown to Israel. The names her song gives to God are already being given to Jesus. The Birth of John the Baptist and the Benedictus (1:57-80) John’s birth is prophecy fulfilled, but it is also the declaration of another prophecy. This birth gives the author of the third Gospel the chance to compose one of the delightful scenes for which he is rightly renowned. The whole point is that despite human resistance, the prophecy of the angel was fulfilled. Here again, Luke evokes history as he attempts to underscore that sometimes God and humans work at cross-purposes, but what God wills reaches accomplishment in the end. Consider the social pressure of attempting to name the child after his Father, resisted by Elizabeth and then by Zechariah. Zechariah’s consent to God’s instruction led to his liberation. He could now speak. Notice that his first words were those of praise of God. This song of Zechariah, the Benedictus, named after the first word in the Latin Bible, is embedded in Old Testament terms. Strikingly, it says nothing about John’s work as baptizer, nor predicts his beheading and the sufferings of the Messiah whose way he was to prepare. The song has two parts dealing with the salvation now about to break in through the coming of the Messiah and the mission of John. This salvation consists in a new Exodus, whereby Israel will be freed from the Roman demands which kept them from serving God according to His will. The mission of John will reveal he is a prophet of God the Most High, who comes to prepare the hearts of the people. Here we experience how God’s mercy liberates the people and makes them worship Him without fear. Zechariah basically repeats what he has been told by the angel but adds greater detail. In this Canticle, we have the first sure sense of what “liberation” means for Luke: a religious freedom, not a political one. The hymn highlights John’s role in preparing the people for this “restoration”. It involves the forgiveness of sins rather than the rallying of troops. In the same way the Messiah’s role is suggested by the “dawn from on high”, that is power of God whose salvation is greater, guaranteeing freedom from enemies and from the shadow of death. He will guide us into the way of peace. While the hymn carries a theme of universality, it is deeply rooted in Jewish symbolism. But it is a strategy. Luke has to show that the God of Israel visited and redeemed his own people, so that the Gentiles may have ground to think that they too will be visited and liberated. Notice that John did his training in the wilderness, where Moses and Israel passed through.44 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level CHAPTER TWOThe Birth of Jesus Christ (2:1-20) The story of Christ’s birth is the most amazing good news ever to fall on human ears. This event marks the turning point of history, a moment that divides two eras, when the promise of God is fulfilled. STYLE: Luke has so far been Jewish in his narrative style. From now on, his universality begins to be obvious. God’s act of salvation brings newness. HISTORIAN: Luke introduces a historical aspect around Christ’s birth to be true to his purpose. However, the data here has been subject for debate. There do not seem to be any justification why Jesus, who lived in Nazareth, Galilee. Why was he born in Bethlehem in Judea? Studies regarding the census taken do not seem to indicate that there was a census of this nature. It is not factual accuracy that matters for us to understand how Luke puts forth his objectives. Luke needed the emperor and the census in the picture, because he needs to get Joseph and Mary to Bethlehem, and this is also because a shared tradition places Jesus’ birth there in the time of Herod (Mt 2:1-6), and also because birth in the city of David was also important as a messianic credential. Hence this is purposeful storytelling, not scientific history. Hence, this is Luke's literary creation. THEME: We find in this passage the theme of Prophecy-fulfilment: what the angel announces, the shepherds see, and what they see, they report. The presence of the angel, the opening of the heavens, the angelic worship gives the event and its interpretations Divine legitimation. The theme of the Messiah his helped by making Joseph belong to the house of David. Jesus is certified as Son of David and Son of God. The theme of the Great reversal is brought about through the idea of the Lowly. The Messiah’s birth was not first proclaimed in Caesar’s hall but to the lowly shepherds. Heaven’s richest treasures are given to those of low degree. The news was not for a selected “chosen people” but for all peoples. The lowly birth of Christ itself reverses the Jewish expectation of the coming of the Messiah. His parents are portrayed as poor and transient homeless couple lacking adequate shelter. Probably, all these contrast justified what Luke wrote, that Mary pondered on all these, wondering what they meant. His birth, like the infancy narratives already had elements of his entire life and death. Hence, the fact that he was wrapped in swathing clothes and kept in a manger for there was no place in the inn, seems to tie with the events around his death, he was also wrapped with linen and placed in the tomb. None of them are the best thing to happen to the King of kings. The theme of joy is evident in the way the shepherds glorified and praise God. The Presentation of Jesus in the Temple Luke in his style has put together two separate ceremonies: the Presentation of the First Born sons (Ex 13:15) and the Purification of the mother forty days after giving birth (Lev 12:1-8). He also brings in the Temple, which later he will indicate as Christ himself. It is in this temple that Judaism and Christianity acquire continuity. The Temple, once the centre of Jewish life becomes the centre of Christian life. Christ ones the expectation of the Jews now becomes the hope of all Christians. In the Temple God reveals himself first. Simeon’s words. When Jesus enters the temple he fulfils the messianic promise made through the prophet Malachi The Lord you are looking for, will suddenly enter his temple (Mc 3:1). In this passage, the theme of poverty reflects in the poverty of Jesus’ parents. Their offering was a pair of turtledove and two young pigeons, instead of a lamb and a young pigeon. Luke highlights the obedience of the parents of Jesus to Jewish laws and customs, now on circumcision. But he also identifies Jesus with his people. He was not above the law. Luke shows the vital connection between the Old and the New Testament by giving us the story of Simeon and Anna and their part in the dedication of Jesus. They represent the best of the Old Testament Israel, righteous and devout, looking for the consolation of Israel. They were 45 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level quickened by the Holy Spirit. Simeon saw in Christ the hope of All. The mission of the child to the Gentiles is spoken of as a light to guide men out of darkness of the shadow of death into the way of God’s forgiveness. But we must realize that Simeon’s words introduce a note of sorrow for the first time in this theme of joy. God’s saving action always produces a crisis, a division, depending on men’s response. The crisis is sparked by the expectation of a political liberation versus spiritual liberation. The reversal is that the One who came was a revelation to the Gentiles, not their political conqueror; while for Israel he will be rejected rather than seen as their long awaited Messiah who would give them glory. Luke ends this section with words from Samuel He grew up in the service of the Lord (1 Sm 2:21) and informs us of the return to Nazareth. Indeed, his style of rounding up before proceeding makes him present Jesus’ next years as natural and normal. Like every other child, he grew in mind, body and spirit. This is real incarnation. It follows that these years, Jesus took upon himself all the limitations, weaknesses, necessities of growth which are common to every person – all except sin (we must add).The Child Jesus in the Temple (2:41-52) Jesus is already 12. No biographical notes from after presentation to this age of 12. Still in line with obedience to the law, at one time the Law required that any faithful Jew makes a pilgrimage to Jerusalem during one of these three feasts: Passover, Pentecost, Tabernacles. The Law does not specify the age. Women were not bound to go, but Luke introduces Mary, since he is pro-women, as one too obedient to the Jewish Law. She went annually. Luke uses this as a transition for chronological purposes. He brings in Jesus to show the progress he has already made at 12 unlike John whose transition is made of just a line until he begins his desert ministry. Read simply as a story, we see Luke's artistry: the loss of a child at the festival with the a resulting blow in the heart of his parents; the frantic search; the distancing speech by the adolescent Jesus; the parent’s incomprehension of a mandate obvious to the young man; are all sketched with economy and psychological penetration. They are issued today. We too would be shocked, full of anguish and confused if we were his parents. We would be full of tension at our adolescent age between piety owed our parents and the pull of a higher vocation. This drama helps Luke to express some of his characteristic religious ways of viewing things. We are referring to the centrality of Jerusalem and the Temple. We see the piety of Jesus’ family that drew them each year to a difficult pilgrimage for Passover. The most difficult section of the passage to interpret is Jesus’ reply. The incomprehension of the parents is a first not of the theme of ignorance which Luke and the Acts carry around the person of Jesus. Luke shows his reader how even the most faithful of the people “did not understand” in the time of the prophet’s first visitation. We are also being reminded that just as Jesus was progressing in wisdom, we must also progress with him. The idea of being lost and found in a subtle way brings in the idea of the resurrection. In Luke 15:32) he associates being lost with being dead, and being found with being alive. That seems to explain why he makes the finding of Jesus a three day event to correspond with the three days in the tomb. Those who love Jesus are filled with anxiety at his absence, but when he is found he begins a withdrawal from them. This is true with the story of the Emmaus experience.THE DISTINCTIVE CHARACTER OF THE INFANCY NARRATIVE From our presentation it becomes obvious that the infancy is different from the rest of the Gospel in style, language, atmosphere and the manner of treatment of the themes. In this section of the Gospel, the marvellous prevails. We encounter several Old Testament allusions, and are exposed to plenty of material that can help us appreciate the divergences that exist between Matthew and Luke especially in connection with the genealogy, the personalities in the narratives, the narrative setting, the birthplace of Jesus, as well as the aims and method of the author Luke. 46 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level CHAPTER THREETHE PUBLIC MINISTRY OF JESUS IN GALILEEPREPARATION FOR MINISTRYThe Prophetic Ministry of John the Baptist 3:1-20 As John begins preaching baptism of repentance, Luke also begins to follow the Gospel of Mark. We must pay attention to how Luke develops the material and modifies to suit his purpose. Again, to be true to his promise of chronology, he sets John’s appearance in his historical framework. He mentions not only the political rulers at the time, but also the religious leaders of Judaism. He freely omits material. He does not mention John’s clothing and diet. He adds John’s message of repentance found also in Matthew. But much of the new material comes from Luke himself. He makes them pose questions to John (3:10). The idea is to let John echo his purpose. He does all these to make John’s ministry significant to the purpose of his work. If, decisively God’s hour in history was about to break in, this called for an equally decisive response on the part of man: repentance and a radical change of heart. Luke gives a distinctive character to John’s ministry. He calls him son of Zechariah. In this way he connects the ministry to the infancy account, reminding the reader of all that was said by the angel and in the Benedictus. John is designated as the prophet who speaks the word of God, which is a form of good news for the people. Hence Luke places him in the sequence of Prophetic figures. His teaching will provide material for Jesus’ teaching against the Pharisees, as he denounces them as brood of vipers. The content of his ministry include: teaching on morality, as he calls people to carry out acts proper to conversion. In admonishing the crowd he brings out one of Luke's favourite characteristics, the right use of possessions as an important step towards accepting the coming Christ. John calls on his hearers to give up extortion, blackmail, wrong acquisition of wealth, accumulation etc. Luke intends to promote sharing between the haves and the have-nots. In defining the role of John, Luke follows Mark. John is a precursor to, a harbinger, a forerunner, a herald of the Messiah. Luke is interested in making Jesus greater than John. He stresses this in terms of strength and the nature of baptism (baptism of spirit and fire different from John’s baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins), by the self-description or attributes of John to himself as an unworthy servant. John is imprisoned before Jesus’ public emergence clearly making John the last of the prophets. He thus helps Luke to stress the supremacy of the Messiah over all the prophets. The theme of salvation and judgment are also brought out in these passages: All flesh will see the salvation of God. The Jews certainly waited to see the Gentiles destroyed by the Messiah. This is not the case, Luke insists. Those who would fail to respond positively to the prophetic call will be like unfruitful trees that are cut off at the roots or like winnowed chaff blown away by the wind. (3:17)The Baptism of Jesus (3:21-22) Luke's version of baptism differs from those of the other gospel writers. He deals differently with the possible misunderstanding that could be caused by John, a subordinate, baptising his Master and Messiah. Mark seems not to be aware of such a problem, Matthew introduces a dialogue that gives the impression Jesus was a sinner or John was greater, but Luke removes John from the scene. He talks of his imprisonment and then does not actually show John baptising Jesus. Another feature is that he gets Jesus pray before the baptism, to square with his teaching on prayer. Luke also heavily emphasizes the manifestation of the Spirit in the physical appearance of a dove. Luke is using symbols to describe interior realities. Luke connects the spirit 47 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level with sonship and the opening of the skies with God’s favour and a new divine visitation. It shall no more be in pomp and power, it shall be a mission of humble service and sacrifice. Why would Jesus, a man without sin submit to a baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins? The New Testament writers indicate that Jesus was baptized for the sins of others. (2Cor:5:21). Isaiah prophesied this idea of vicarious suffering, when he referred to the wounds of the suffering servant. He was wounded for our sins … by his wounds we are healed. (Is 53:5-6). That is why Luke couples Jesus’ baptism with those of the people: When the people had all been baptized, and when Jesus also had been baptized (3:21) This makes the Lucan Jesus in the first public act, to identify himself with sinners, thus helping Luke to emphasize his theology of Jesus as friend of sinners, and bearer of Divine mercy and salvation. Hence, we see Jesus accepting the role of a servant. This passage will open theologians to build up the notion of the Trinity. We have all the Three Persons of the Godhead spoken of, as co-operating and acting at one time. God the Son begins the mighty work of His earthly ministry, by being baptized. God the Father solemnly accredits Him as the appointed Mediator, by a voice from heaven. God the Holy Spirit descends "in a bodily shape like a dove" upon our Lord, and by so doing declares that this is He to whom "the Father gives the Spirit without measure." It helps to show the great significance Christ places on Baptism. It highlights the great connection baptism ought to have with prayerThe Genealogy (Family Tree or Ancestry) of Jesus (3:23-38) The Genealogy is also an area which poses historical discrepancies. With Matthew, Luke present lists of names. However, the opposing direction of the naming, the genealogical formula and the structural organization of Matthew not found in Luke are problems, but not as serious as the fact that Luke has 76 names while Matthew has 42 and that these names do not often agree. From Jesus to David, they share only 5 names for instance. In contrast, from David to Abraham, they share all but two names. Luke continues to Adam. Hence, the names from Abraham to Adam are peculiar to Luke. These two texts cannot be reconciled. Significant is that Luke connects Jesus to David’s lineage through Joseph. So we are not dealing with history here. But Luke extends the genealogy to Adam to stress the universality note. Jesus is not only for the children of Abraham, but for the children of men. Luke's emphasizes Jesus’ sonship as Divine more than human, a sonship mediated by the Holy Spirit. 48 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level CHAPTER FOURThe Temptation of Jesus (4:1-13) Jesus is tested. This section is meant to show Jesus battling with God’s enemy. Luke tries to construe this battle as one between two kingdoms. The devil has real authority over those he rules. His shadow kingdom parodies that of God, enabling him in his challenges to this Messiah to imitation the coinage of God’s kingdom. Hence, it could be considered already as Jesus engaged in his ministry rather than preparing for it. While some refer to this passage as one about the Son of God who conquers the devil, others prefer to call it negatively as the power and unwearied malice of the devil. The tradition that Jesus was tested was widely known in the early Church. It appears in all the Gospels. Mark devotes two short sentences to it. (Mk 1:12-13). John spreads the temptations throughout Jesus’ active ministry. Matthew and Luke probably from Q source present a similar account with few variations in the order of the temptation. Luke reverses the order of Matthew’s second and third, placing Jerusalem in the last place, not only because of his geographical concern but even more a delicate spiritual sensitivity. His sequence and the responses of Jesus gives credibility to the good news as “release of captives” and makes Jesus proclamation of the Kingdom of God to be one of healing all those oppressed by the devil.” He also makes some minor additions and omissions. Luke frames this episode with the genealogy on one side and Jesus inaugural preaching on the other. Why does he do this? Luke in the genealogy has assured us that Jesus is God’s son. Now he wants us to learn the qualities of the sonship of Jesus. Luke’s theme of good news is evident. The messiah will release the captives, and heal those oppressed by the devil. It is a battle of the heart. By winning this battle, the Messiah stands out as the true minister of God’s Kingdom, obedient to the one who commissioned him, so that in all he does, God is with him. He shows himself as on who becomes victorious through the Word of God (Scriptures). Unlike the devil who misuses the Scriptures, Jesus attaches supreme value to them. Jesus will encounter the same temptations again while on the cross in Jerusalem, and will again be victorious by his faith. The content of the temptations: Each involves a seizure of power that obviously belongs to someone else: First, there is the temptation to assume the power or ability to change the elements of creation. Satan's device here was to persuade our Lord to DISTRUST HIS FATHER'S PROVIDENTIAL CARE. He comes to Him, when weak and exhausted with forty days' hunger, and suggests to Him to work a miracle, in order to gratify a carnal appetite. Why should He wait any longer? Why should the Son of God sit still and starve? Why not "command this stone to become bread? Why not change the elements created by the Father? In this way, the devil expects that Jesus will meet the expectations of the people as an economic Messiah who gives them the kind of bread they want. Why! Moses did the same and if Jesus would do so in a greater way, would he not be accomplishing the new exodus? However, Jesus himself will eventually be the bread. The second is on seizing the power to politically and militarily control humans. Here, Satan tries to persuade our Lord to GRASP AT WORLDLY POWER BY UNLAWFUL MEANS. He takes Him to the top of a mountain and shows Him "all the kingdoms of the world in a moment of time." All these he promises to give Him, if He will but "fall down and worship him." The concession was small. The promise was large. Why not by a little momentary act, obtain an enormous gain of political and military might? The third invites Jesus to seize the power or capacity to force God’s protection. Satan's last device was to persuade our Lord to an act of PRESUMPTION. He takes Him to a pinnacle of the temple and suggests to Him to "cast Himself down." By so doing he would give public proof that He was one sent by God. In so doing He might even depend on being kept from harm. Was there not a text of Scripture, which specially applied to the Son of God, in such a position? Was it not written that "angels should bear Him up?" The Greeks are used to these temptations in a threefold category: the Love of pleasure, the love of possession and the love of glory. As Jesus refuses to be carried away by these vices, he stands out as the righteous person truly capable of teaching virtue. Other symbolisms found within this passage include the forty days in the desert without food, which recalls the wandering of Elijah and of Jesus’ prototype Moses, who fasted for forty 49 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level days before writing the words of the covenant. There is also the motif of testing which recalls the wandering of Israel in the wilderness of Sinai for forty years. Though designated as ‘God’s’ sons Israel continuously tested the Lord, longing for the past which they thought was more pleasurable, or demanding for itself a more secure future. If the testing of Israel was God’s way of knowing what was in Israel’s heart, whether they could keep his commandments or not, both Matthew and Luke showed that Jesus is, in his heart, truly an obedient Son. PART ONETHE GALILEAN MINISTRY (4:14-9:50)Anticipatory description of the Galilean Ministry: (4:14-15) In these few lines Jesus’ ministry is dedicated to the power of the Spirit. Whatever Jesus is going to proclaim in word and deed about God’s Kingdom is shown by Luke as coming from God’s creative Spirit. Galilee like Jerusalem also has theological significance for Luke. It is the territory where Luke begins his description of the meaning of God’s Kingdom. Luke 4:14-44 is said to provide a very strong summary of the entire ministry of preaching the Kingdom of God in Galilee. That preaching involves fulfilment of God’s promises (4:16-30), restoring both men and women to health and casting out demons (4:31-44). It is also in Galilee that Jesus gathers his apostles, who will witness to his ministry. Finally, Galilee is the site where the disciples do not understand the person and mission of Christ, yet they marvel at his mighty deeds but also struggle amongst themselves about who is the greatest. Luke, in this section introduces the theme of Jesus as teacher. This theme will persist in the Gospel. Jesus is called teacher 13 times and Master 6 times in Luke. Through this theme, Luke stresses Jesus authority in addressing the people about God and the Divine plan. He also justifies why Jesus had disciples. Luke also introduces the motif of the synagogue to help us appreciate Jesus’ stand in continuity with God’s promises of old. We also appreciate the conflicts (opposition and hostility), and interactions Jesus had with the Jewish religious authorities of his time. God’s Promises fulfilled in Jesus for All: The Prophetic Messiah: The Mission of the Servant and its consequences (4:16-30)In the Synagogue of Nazareth (4:16-30) Jesus is rejected by his neighbours. This story is particularly important if we have to understand Luke's literary and religious intentions. While Matthew and Mark tell us of the rejection of Jesus after Jesus must have done quite a lot, Luke moves this rejection to the very beginning of the ministry of Jesus, with only a small transition statement of 4:14-15, which suggests that Jesus had been preaching in other synagogues. But that is not all. Luke also includes the citation from Isaiah and the speech of Jesus. This passage is made into a prophetic programme which will now guide the readers to understand the rest of the gospel narrative. The passage answers the question regarding the kind of messiah Jesus was going to be. He is the messiah foretold by the prophets: a prophetic Messiah, because he is anointed with the Spirit and what was foretold by the prophets about the messiah Jesus declares to be fulfilled in him. Hence, Luke orders the materials to suit his theological principle of promise and fulfilment. What Isaiah prophesied, Jesus declares it is being fulfilled in John. He attributes to himself the title of prophet in the manner of Elijah and Elisha. The citation from Isaiah also defines the character of Jesus’ ministry: he will announce good news to those who are poor, blind, in captivity, and oppressed. Luke's gospel will show how Jesus accomplishes this programme in the specific stories told about Him. Luke does not present Jesus work as a political and economic reform programme. He rather makes it a liberating work in terms of personal exorcisms, healings, and the teaching of the people. We see the radical nature of the mission in the fact that it is being offered to and accepted by the outcasts of the people. 50 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level As a prophetic messiah, Jesus is rejected. Hence, Luke explores the theme of the rejected prophet, predicted already in the remarks of Simeon. It is a theme that highlights God’s boundless compassion as he continues to send prophets to a rebellious people. There is a pattern of the rejected prophet: Rebellion and Killing of the Prophet – Punishment – Mercy through sending a new prophet – sin and rejection of prophets. In Luke the first part of this pattern is found from Luke 1-23 and from Chapter 24 to Acts we find the second part. Jesus declares that no prophet is accepted in his own country. This enrages his own people. Notice the sudden shift in attitude of the people. A while ago we are told that they were all impressed at him and marvelled at the eloquent words that he spoke. Why the sudden rage and murderous intentions? What provokes this is that Jesus compares his ministry to that of Elijah and Elisha. These two prophets carried out their ministry not only among Jews but also among non-Jews (gentiles). They are angry to hear that the prophet will be for all and not just for them. It is due to the fact that God’s salvation will be extended to the poor and oppressed of all nations and not just for Jews. But their anger only impels them to fulfil Jesus; statement: he is not acceptable in his own country. In the next passages, we are going to encounter Jesus performing miracles. Before that let us pause here on what miracles in the ministry of Christ are. God’s Kingdom restores men and women to wholeness – First Signs and Wonders: The Capernaum Demoniac (4:31-44) Jesus is now in a Synagogue in Capernaum, a town in Galilee. In this section Luke follows Mark very closely. We have what many have considered as a typical day in the life of Jesus. On the Sabbath in Capernaum, Jesus appears as God’s authoritative messenger launching an official attack on the devil. The unclean recognizes the kind of challenge. Jesus does not permit the demon to speak (the theme of the messianic secret), the people are struck by his deeds, yet the amazement does not necessarily mean faith. It is the same with the healing of Peter’s mother-in-law, the healing of the sick in the evening and through the night, and the decision to preach elsewhere. But he differs with Mark about the calling of Peter to discipleship. He changes the position of this episode. In this section, Luke draws the closest connection possible between Jesus’ authority to teach and his activities of exorcism and healing. Jesus rebukes the fever and rebukes the unclean spirit. In both cases, the fever left and the unclean spirit also left. The actions in the healing and exorcism accounts are identical. Hence, Jesus’ programme of liberation is already being executed. By delaying the call of the disciples, Luke seems to be more concerned with providing a portrait of Jesus ministry first. We then come to learn as we reflect on his prophetic ministry of liberation, that it is the Divine power that is at work, not a team of healers. It is in the power of the Spirit that Jesus heals and exorcises. Luke identifies these activities as preaching the good news. Hence, miracles and exorcism for Christ is essentially connected with the proclamation of the Kingdom of God. That is Jesus’ authority and power was manifested not by magical incantations, occult ceremonies, or mysterious charms, but by his word! He rebuked. The multitude asked: what is this word? For with authority and power he commands…” This opens us to the question regarding the nature and purpose of Jesus’ miracles.51 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level CHAPTER FIVEThe Call of His Disciples: (5:1-11) Luke expands this section to make us see the prophetic power of Christ and the faith and future role of Peter. Luke attaches the call with the miraculous catch of fish. In this way, Luke presents Jesus as a teacher whose power is demonstrated by his deeds. This miracle is a dramatic and personal display of Divine power: following his instruction, an unexpected and almost disastrous abundance of fish is caught. We come to see Jesus as that prophet who knows what will happen beforehand. The fact that his prediction about the catch is so fulfilled gives room for us to believe that Peter will also be fisher of men. Luke therefore, builds a context and a motivation for the commitment of faith of these early disciples. When Luke makes Peter to object and later comply, he is using one of his strategies of objection and obedience. We find this in the annunciation stories. He also brings us to see that nothing is impossible for God, a lesson we learn earlier about Elizabeth’s surprising fertility. This also helps to bring out the contrast between a lack of human potential and the reality of Divine fulfilment. This is an essential pattern to Luke's theme of Great Reversal. As Peter refers to Jesus as Master and Lord, we already read a pre-figuration of the resurrection, since this is the event that reveals the Lordship of Jesus. We are meeting Simon for the first time. He is going to be one of Luke's dominant and most engaging characters. His role is told as fisher of men as with the other synoptic writers. But only Luke will later show this to be true in the Acts of the Apostles. Luke portrays Peter as a sinner, thus making him to represent one of the categories of the marginalized, people who respond with faith to the prophet’s visitation. In this way, he makes Peter appear as one who is saved. This declaration of sinfulness must not be understood in a moral sense, but as an expression of awe before the power of a Holy God. This is because Luke emphasizes more the fascinating aspect of Jesus’ power rather than the fearful and repelling quality. In this way, although Peter asks Jesus to depart, he ends up “following” Him. Peter shares his possessions with his business partners to anticipate the life of the early Christian community. He and his followers symbolize their change of life by leaving everything and following Him. This brings us to the theme not only of discipleship, but to the need to give up possessions so that the disciple can be self-disposed. Luke focuses attention on Peter and so makes him emerge as the spokesperson for the disciples. Above all, Peter is portrayed as a person of faith. Peter’s personal response is commanded after a personal experience of the catch. We must realize that Peter, after all the fatigue of the night, placed his trust in the word of the prophet. He follows Jesus on a path unknown. This will be a pattern that will continue as he becomes disciple. Two Healings (5:12-26) Here Luke narrates the miraculous cure of the leper and the Paralytic. Luke follows Mark but makes slight deviations for clarifications. In doing so, we find some themes showing up. Hence, there is Jesus working wonders and the people responding. These two stories have the pattern of healing miracles common to oral tradition. In these stories, Jesus is portrayed by Luke as one through whom the divine power is at work enabling him to heal with a word, and a touch. His deeds draw great crowds to him and his marvels or miracles generate fear and amazement. Luke also shows that Jesus is one who knows and commands observances of the commands of Moses concerning the purification from leprosy, even if his motivation for sending the healed man to the priest is obscure. Jesus is identified as the Son of Man who has authority to declare sins forgiven even on earth. We see a Jesus who can read the thoughts of his opponents. This makes him truly a prophet. This aspect of Jesus’ work was foretold by Simeon: “the thoughts of many will be revealed” (2:35). Gradually we begin to understand the kind of messianic liberation Jesus brings. Luke makes the bystanders and the healed to glorify God, hence, attributing the works of Jesus the prophet to God and contradicting his opponents. In the cure of the paralytic we find the physical rising and spiritual healing or forgiveness are attributed to the same source of authority: Divine authority. This same connection will be made by Luke again in the Resurrection of Christ. 52 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level These two stories also continue the theme of the division within the people caused by the Prophet. Luke makes Jesus show concern for the outcasts. He makes him touch the leper restoring him to human community. He restores the paralytic to his own home. Human status is reversed. He said he would do this and he has done it. Those he liberates make a positive response. The leper declares Jesus’ capacity to cleanse, the crowd seek Jesus to “listen” and be healed, and the friends of the paralytic demonstrate remarkable faith. On the other side, we meet for the first time Pharisees and Scribes. Holding positions of authority, they too gather to observe this prophet at work – sitting as judges do; they reject his words as blasphemous. Luke will further develop this split between the ordinary fold and their leaders. The cure of the paralytic and episodes that follow highlights conflicts which Jesus had with the authorities of his time and also attempts to answer the question regarding the extent to which a Christian must allow himself to be bound by the regulations of the Jews regarding clean and unclean food, and Sabbath observances. Call of Levi and Controversy over eating with Sinners (5:27-39) The conflict Luke highlighted in the paralytic episode becomes evident here. We do not only meet the conflict between Jesus and the authorities but also between those who believe in the messiah and their opponents – mainly the Jewish leaders, over the identity and claims of Jesus, and how valid their own practices are. Luke again follows Mark’s order in this section, and makes only minor adjustments within the stories. 53 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level CHAPTER SIXLuke 6:1-16: TWO CONTROVERSIES AND A CHOICE Luke presents two Sabbath controversies. He places the choosing of the twelve as if it were a response to the rejection Jesus faced among the hostile Jewish religious leaders. In this section, he presents the Pharisees and also the Scribes to some extent, as those who are judges of piety especially the Sabbath. In the first controversy, the disciples are charged with an offence, but Jesus springs to defend them. Christ justifies his disciples in a work of necessity for themselves on the Sabbath day, and that was plucking the ears of corn when they were hungry. In doing so, he reveals himself as Son of Man who is Master of the Sabbath and the authentic interpreter of the Torah. Hence, Jesus is declaring the advent of the Messianic age. In this regard, his action seems to have been a deliberate challenge to the tradition of the Pharisees; furnishing an excellent illustration of how far the religious leaders had missed the will of God. The Law practically forbade harvesting on the Sabbath. (Ex 34:21). But Jesus reminds them that Scriptures itself allowed an exception to the Law, by referring to David. The Messiah was son of David. In the second episode, he heals a poor man on the Sabbath. While the Pharisees were watching to challenge Jesus, he takes the initiative and challenges his challengers. The Pharisees placed all observances of the Law on the same plane of seriousness and obligation. But Jesus establishes priorities: moral activities must come before ritual ones. The human life and human needs must receive higher priority; the same is true of our ability to respond flexibly and freely to these demands. Notice that this is an example of how Luke regards the Pharisees in his gospel, regardless of history. He intends to show them as those who resist and reject the prophet. Luke's plot wants to show how Jesus turns to the twelve, those who have responded positively to his vision. Luke has Jesus pray before any major event. We see this happening here. Indeed the choosing of the twelve is such a moment, because Jesus prayed through the night. The twelve apostles are here named; never were men so privileged, yet one of them had a devil, and proved a traitor. Luke indicates that this was a selection from a larger group, and omits any mention of the functions of the twelve deferring this until chapter 9:1-2.Luke 6:17-35: THE PUBLIC PREACHING OF JESUS: SERMON ON THE PLAIN With the choice of the twelve, a decisive turn has been taken. The proof of this is the present discourse addressed to a large crowd of his disciples. Notice that Jesus gives this sermon on the Plain as soon as he comes down from the mountain. Here, he enunciates the principle of how people could become included in his kingdom, and for those who already joined him, he states clearly the norm of behaviour that govern life within the messianic community. This is now known as ‘Sermon on the Plain’. It is much shorter than the parallel account in Matthew 5-7: The Sermon on the Mount. Much of what Matthew has in his Sermon, Luke distributes evenly. Both of them use the Q source equally. Luke's is more appealing to Gentile readers because it does not discuss the material dealing with the Law and the Prophets of Matthew. He moves smoothly from the Beatitudes and woes to the measure of life before God, to the demand for action and not just speech. THE BEATITUDES: While in Matthew the opening scene recalls Moses as the Law-giver (typically Jewish image), in Luke, Moses’ image is recalled as the prophet and sage. Matthew has nine blessings without corresponding woes. Luke makes Jesus to proclaim contrasting sets of blessings and woes. The contrast reminds us of the blessings and curses of Deuteronomy. But the use of the woes only echoes the speech of the prophets. Luke addresses the readers directly. Matthew speaks of internal dispositions which yield specific results. Luke describes objective conditions that will be or are being reversed by God. Luke's beatitude and woes have the same internal structure: Each set has four. The middle two describe present conditions of need or comfort that will be reversed in future. The rich representing the secure and powerful are rejected. This fits with the rejection and acceptance of Jesus by the world and his followers. 54 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level The prophetic messiah was to bring the good news to the poor. Hence, Jesus and also his disciples are seen as prophets. In his formal address, the Messiah addresses: Blessed are you poor… Now we know those to whom the Kingdom belongs, we now move on to exhortations directed to those who have listened to the voice of the prophet and repented. I declare to you who are listening. The ethical standards set here are remarkably high. Here, Luke shows Jesus as teacher of morality. Jesus develops the proper understanding of the law of love which will be the basic law of this community of the restored people of God. Jesus commands the love of enemies, doing good to those who hate, blessing those who curse and praying for those who scorn. Jesus expects his followers to maintain a certain standard of human relationship that involves a ‘going beyond’ or ‘more’ than the norm of reciprocity. He wants them to observe the golden rule but to go beyond: Do as God would do. He discourages any tit for tat. The basis for this new law of love is in the fact that God is kind towards all creatures, good and bad alike. The reward for behaving like this is that we become children of the Most high, children who can imitate his kindness towards the world. Luke 6:36-49: Jesus reinforces the Laws of the Kingdom with Parables In this section, Jesus picks up with the same point: Christians are to become compassionate just as God is compassionate. This time Luke does not make a prophetic presentation but writes in the form of wisdom literature. Here we find stylistic elements typical of Luke: the alternation of positive and negative commands; the use of the apostrophe and rhetorical questions; the employment of examples. We see the typical concerns for actions, flowing from a certain character or heart, of action not speech defining convictions, of teaching and learning as a matter of guidance and mutual correction. These are Hellenistic devices which make his sermon appeal to the Gentiles. The motivation for all these is the need to imitate God. For if we insist on judging and condemning others, God will condemn us. If we fail to give and forgive, we shall not also be forgiven by God. But Luke insists it is not only God who is to be obeyed, but the words of the prophets too. Hence this section highlights what discipleship entails. By discipleship we mean following someone who knows the way. A disciple becomes like his master; he must criticise himself in a continuous manner so that he avoids being blind to his own faults; he is going to be known by the kind of fruit he produces; and to show that he is a true disciple, he manifests a life of charity and zeal in carrying out the will of the one he is following, because not all who say ‘Lord, Lord’ will enter the kingdom.55 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level CHAPTER SEVENLuke 7:1-17: The centurion's servant healed. (1-10) The widow's son raised. (11-17) From this point, Luke abandons Mark’s structure. He wants us to see Jesus as the prophetic proclaimer of the good news to the poor. This section is sometimes called the little interpolation (interruption). Matthew records the healing of the slave of the centurion like Luke, suggesting the Q source. But the raising of the widow’s son is a peculiar miracle Luke records. Luke brings together John and Jesus: two prophets, and shows how they are both rejected or accepted by the people. The first two miracles serve to certify Jesus’ status as a prophet through whom God is visiting his people. Jesus heals the centurion’s servant in response to a request from a Gentile. He compares his faith favourably to that found in Israel. The story recalls that of Naaman the Syrian. Luke adds a Jewish delegation and the intervention of friends. This makes Luke's version universal, as it shows also the good will of the soldier toward Judaism. But it also shows his power and makes the story resemble even more that of Naaman the leper, for in this story a Jewish girl interceded and servants encouraged him. In the second miracle, Jesus raised the only son of a widow from the dead. Luke surely got his inspiration from the raising of the widow of Sarepta’s son from the dead by Elijah. The stories are so similar. Both stories show how prophecy is being fulfilled. Indeed, in the Sermon on the Plain, Jesus proclaimed good news to the poor. Now he performs wonders similar to those of the prophets of old. When we consider the response of the people we understand why Luke arranges the stories in this manner. They called Jesus the great prophet raise for them, the prophetic Messiah. The meaning of Christ’s ministry is that God visits the outcasts because they are a Gentile (centurion) and a woman (widow of Nain). Luke 7:18-35: John the Baptist's inquiry concerning Jesus. (19-35) This section again is shared almost entirely with Matthew 11:2-19. It presents to us the roles of John the Baptist and Jesus again and the responses to their roles. Luke's hand is seen only in minor adjustments, for instance: he places this episode between the two miracles and the anointing of Jesus in the house of the Pharisee and the parable of the two debtors. Jesus has just been shown as the prophetic Messiah. This story then confirms Jesus as the One who is to Come, whom John announced. Jesus in turn discusses John as a great prophet who did not receive universal acceptance. Furthermore, Luke has shown earlier that John the Baptist was an ascetic, a life prophesied by the annunciation of John’s birth. The conflict with the Pharisees was also prophesied. The same is true of John’s role as the Harbinger, forerunner. But Luke had not yet spoken of John’s clothing, so he takes this opportunity to talk about his clothing, at a time when Elijah’s image is still being evoked. Luke contrasts John’s asceticism with the luxurious and splendid life of those in palaces. In this way, Luke includes John with Jesus among the poor opposed by the rich and powerful. Even here, Luke accepts that John is a prophet and even more, but stresses that Jesus is “the great prophet” supreme to John. Indeed, both John and Jesus are messengers of God and are counted among wisdom’s children, unlike the childish stubbornness of the Pharisees and lawyers to have their own way. Jesus’ reply shows that his ministry of healing involves the restoration of the people of God. Luke 7:29-30 is one of his peculiar interruptions. It is a flashback. The sinners and the tax- collectors accepted John and so justified God. The Pharisees and the Lawyers rejected John and so rejected God’s plan for them. Here we see the division amongst the people which Simeon had prophesied. Hence the theme of promise and fulfilment is highlighted. We also make explicit the theme of the great reversal. It becomes obvious that the rich is symbolized by the Pharisees/Scribes, and the poor are the sinners/tax collectors. The language about possessions then is not merely a question of money, but about power and position, about openness and closeness. 56 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level Luke 7:36-50: JESUS FRIEND OF SINNERS: GOD’S GIFT OF FORGIVENESS The theme of God’s love for sinners stands out here. It shows itself through the generosity of the forgiven sinner. It attacks religious righteousness, but in a sober way. The structure is: invitation, gradual revelation of who the host and the guests are, the action that prompts the speech of the chief guest (i.e., Simon’s unspoken reaction), and the speech of the chief guest. This story must not be compared to the story in Matthew and the other gospels regarding the anointing at Bethany shortly before the passion. Luke's is peculiar, because he mentions the Pharisee four times, with reasons. He mentions that the woman was a sinner to suit his theme. He makes the woman cry. She uses the tears to wash the feet of Jesus and dries His feet. She kisses the feet and anoints them. He introduces the parable of the two debtors and makes Jesus pronounce the words of love, the forgiveness of sins. He recounts the objection to forgiveness and introduces a farewell: ‘go in peace’. Hence, Luke is telling quite another story. The narrative pattern is similar to the story of the healing of the paralytic (5:17-26). In both episodes, Jesus is surrounded by Pharisees; someone enters the house and demonstrates faith by an extravagant gesture; the Pharisees object and Jesus reads their hearts; there is the forgiveness of sins; the power to forgive is questioned; the person is dismissed. We know that to participate in the meal of Pharisees there are rigorous rituals to be observed. The problem is: How to admit one who represents the outcasts into such purity lines of their community for a while and then allow the outcast to return to his social class in society… By allowing the woman to touch him, Jesus breaks with the ritual norms of the Pharisees. He teaches that love grows out of forgiveness: the greater the forgiveness, the greater the love. The story bears Lukan themes: the language of possessions used to symbolize human relationships; the reading of the heats by the prophet; the forgiveness of sins; faith as saving; salvation leading to peace. In the sinful woman we recognize a member of the outcast poor, rejected by the religious elites as an untouchable, but showing through her acts of hospitality that she accepts the prophet, while the Pharisees reject him. The ending of this story prepares for the next development, in which Luke will show more fully how ‘faith saves’. 57 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level CHAPTER EIGHTLuke begins to show how the restored people of God are to be formed around Jesus, the prophet. Much the material here is from Mark. As usual he makes significant changes to suit his purpose. He makes this part of his Gospel a statement on the internal meaning of the ministry of Jesus. The sayings interpret the narrative meaning. We have learnt about the different responses to Jesus’ preaching: rejection and acceptance. Now, Luke shows what it means to accept Jesus. He focuses on three elements: the preaching of Jesus as the Word of God; the diverse responses to the Word of God in terms of hearing and faith; the character of God’s people as made up of faith that acts and lasts or endures. Luke 8:1-3: The Women accompanying Jesus At this stage, Jesus had become an itinerant preacher going from place to place. Jesus’ attitude of raising women to a more dignified status is evoked here. Women’s role is critical in witnessing to Jesus’ death and resurrection. They now form part of his followers to serve God and the wealth of some of them supported Jesus and his disciples. LUKE 8:4-21: PARABLES OF THE SOWER AND THE LAMP The lesson of the parable is that it is possible to lose what one has initially been given or think he has. Secondly, anyone who has the word needs to protect it and persevere in it. This is a parable on right hearing. The four soils are all types of responses to truth. All involve those who have heard. The seed is God’s Word – his setting forth of his deepest thoughts and intention towards men. The word falls with equal forces on all human hearts. Some are hardened that there is no response, others are superficial, and do not endure; others are double-minded, allowing the affairs of this world to choke out their interest in the unseen world. But there are those who hear the word and produce its fruits. What is involved in right hearing? It involves receiving the Word with faith, holding fast to it in the heart, cultivating it with patience so that it bears fruit, and then witnessing to it through obedient service. Hence, Luke means by faith, not only a momentary decision. It also implies fidelity and perseverance. It does not fade away in times of testing, it does not become suffocated by the distractions and delights of worldly existence; it is protected in patience and thus comes to maturity. Once the Word is received in this manner, it cannot no more be kept a secret which never comes to light. The secrets of the kingdom do not lie in that they are not announced, but because those who hear them refuse to listen. Christianity is an open faith to be confessed. Listening well is important if witnessing is also going to be fruitful. Faith then is the basis for membership in God’s people. This leads to the story of Jesus’ family. Notice that his family is seeking him. Jesus affirms them, but not only them, but all those who eventually will seek him. Talking about his family, Jesus indicates the way to listen and be a witness. Obedience to the word of God is what produces brotherhood and sonship in his kingdom, not family ties.Luke 8:22-39: JESUS CONQUERS CHAOS: THE CALMING OF THE STORM AND THE DEMONIAC OF GERASA (GERASENE DEMONIAC) Verses 22-25 continue the Lucan which considers Jesus as one who has power to save and who teaches on discipleship. Luke makes a brief description of the calming of the storm. In this miracle Luke is not interested in the failure of the disciples to see as Matthew is. He does not make Jesus to accuse the disciples of being cowards, nor does he ask why they do not have faith. The question rather is: “Where is your faith?” It is a provocative question still, but not as harsh. The question here is on faith and salvation. Faith is necessary if people have to be saved. In the Old Testament, watery storm symbolized chaos. In creation, God conquered them, in the exodus; he did the same at the Red Sea. Jesus rebukes the storm. This is a terminology that indicates exorcism. Hence, we can envisage a faith chaos. Will disciples and readers hold on to their faith in the power of Jesus’ kingdom when chaos reigns? 58 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level Notice that Luke modifies Mark’s version. He is concerned about order. This leads him to create a prophecy/fulfilment pattern even within his story. He echoes every note and answers every question. In Verses 26-39 Jesus restores a uncontrolled gentile to the human community. This miracle occurs at Gadara. In retelling Mark’s version Luke makes the contrasts sharper between ‘inside the city/outside the city’; living in the tomb/living in the house; to underline his theme of the outcasts and marginalized. A man, who once lived in the desert believed at the time to be the abode of the devil, is brought home to the city. This is salvation. He who once was without clothes is clothed. He who was out of his mind now has a sound mind. He has been transferred from destructive isolation to a human community. This has been done by Jesus, Son of the Most High God. The pigs contribute to Luke's teaching about Christ. Jesus is master not only over demons but also over every earthly creature. He is also Master over pagan religion which the pigs symbolize, for pigs were regarded by the Gentiles as a sacrificial animal. We shall meet pigs again in the story of the prodigal son. Eating pork for the Jew was paganism and apostasy from Judaism. But it was also the symbol of Roman might. Notice that to show that the exorcised man became an apostle of Jesus; he fell at his foot – which is the posture of a disciple. Jesus considers restoration of a human life as more important that the economic value of a herd of pigs. The reaction of the crowds to this miracle is not the same as they would react in other instances. It is no more wonder and amazement but they were indignant. The effect of healing is missionary work. The man becomes a missionary among his fellow Gentiles. Luke 8:40-56: THE RESTORATION OF TWO WOMEN TO LIFE: JESUS’ POWER BEYOND RITUAL PURITY. We read in this section Jesus’ miracle in which he shows his power over death. This miracle is interrupted by another healing miracle in which a woman is restored. Luke builds on Mark 5:21- 43. This concludes his presentation regarding Jesus’ power over destructive forces against women. Jesus does not allow laws of ritual impurity to disturb his mission of saving all. Both miracles are connected by the power of Jesus. With the first miracle, Jesus is touched by the woman and feels power going out of him; in the second, he takes the girl by the hand and calls to her. The first is due to faith, the second is due to Jesus’ own compassionate nature but it is also dependent on the faith of the father, indicating that one can be saved through the intercession of others. Faith, Luke insist, is a condition for miracles to occur. It would seem Luke intentionally mentions the age of the girl (12) and the number of years the woman has suffered haemorrhage (12 years). The young woman has died; the old one has not been able to be cured. Both cases are hopeless. Jesus restores hope, were it is lost. In this story, we still see the prophecy/fulfilment theme – Jairius is told her daughter will live and it happens. We learn that faith saves. Those who belong to Jesus are those who hear the word of God and keep it, like Jairius. The person saved is restored to a community: the young girl to her family, the old woman back to common life. The theme of poverty is implicit, because she must have spent all her money on doctors. Both of them are addressed as daughters. 59 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level CHAPTER 9PREPARING A LEADERSHIP FOR THE PEOPLEJesus is about to move to Jerusalem. So he is bringing to a close his mission in Galilee. Attention is now focused on Jesus and his disciples. These are his closest followers who unlike the religious leaders of the time, have accepted him as the prophet. Jesus is preparing a leadership for the people. He sends out the twelve on mission: to proclaim the good news and to heal the sick. Luke also presents the response of Herod to the deeds the apostles were performing. Then Luke presents the feeding of the multitude. As usual, Luke's source is Mark, but he shapes this section to suit his purpose. Luke 9:1-17: THE TASK OF AN APOSTLE This section tells us of the authority of those sent by Christ, and how they are received. Their authority is connected to Jesus. They have the same authority over demons and disease. As with Jesus, such authority is connected to the preaching of the kingdom. The twelve fulfil their commission and report their activities to Jesus. In response, Jesus speaks about the Kingdom of God and healing. Jesus asks them to practice evangelical poverty, not so much for ascetic reasons, but because it will help to determine who accepts and who rejects the good news. They will depend totally on the hospitality of the listeners. He will recall this incident at the Last Supper, when he will ask them if they did lacked anything as they went out. Hence, Luke wants us to see that the apostles were received by the people in the same manner as Jesus was: with welcome and hospitality. Later, Jesus will reverse this instruction because the apostles will be facing rejection. Next, Luke shifts our attention to Herod’s soliloquy, his inner preoccupations. In response to the deeds of the apostles, Herod is puzzled over what they might mean. He had also received reports concerning Jesus. Luke is bringing Herod here to let us realize before hand that the twelve will also face political opposition like their Master. Hence, not only household will reject the apostles, but powers that seek to kill. Herod will reappear in the trial of Christ. In Acts of the Apostles, he will be included in the blame for Jesus’ death. Luke then proceeds to the multiplication of the loaves. The setting is a deserted place. This story is found in the four Gospels. The incident recalls the miraculous manna in the desert at the time of Moses. (Ex. 16:4-36) In this way Luke presents Jesus as a Prophet like Moses. It also recalls the feeding of the followers of Elisha (2Kgs 4:42-44). This feeding miracle points to the Last Supper of Jesus with his disciples. (22:19). The Lucan Jesus also appears as one who provides food for his people. The theme of feeding is a motif in Luke. It will recur especially in Jesus joyful table fellowship with sinners. Luke 9:18-36: RECOGNIZING JESUS Luke divides this section into three: Peter’s confession of Jesus as the Messiah with the first prediction of the passion (9:18-22), Sayings of discipleship (9:23-27) and the Transfiguration (9:28- 36). All these episodes lead the disciple and us to a deeper understanding of the identity of Jesus and our call to discipleship. Peter’s Confession: This section shows Jesus absorbed in prayer. When this happens it is always an indication of a decisive moment in his life. He is ready to confront his followers with the question that has been tantalizing audiences since the beginning of his ministry: the identity of the Jesus. Luke has edited this section to make it fit with the theme of discipleship. Luke's presentation is similar to the Emmaus experience, and also recalls the growing resistance towards Jesus. The disciples’ reply was the standard opinion of the public. Jesus is identified with John, Elijah, or one of the prophets. He was not considered as the Messiah by the people. Then Jesus personalized his question: What about you? Who do you say I am? Simon Peter, under the influence of God gave the right answer. This answer will give Peter an eventual significant role in the ministry of Jesus. As for Jesus, it was important to have this confession made because he needed those who have accepted him to understand who he really is and what this implies. We must realize that the reply is divine 60 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level inspired, meaning it was still not clear to the disciples the kind of Messiah Jesus was. This was an opportunity for Jesus to reveal his identity. He then goes ahead to plainly state the implications of this messiahship: it implies suffering, humiliation and death and then resurrection on the third day. This is now known as the first prediction of the passion. He will repeat this a second and third time. In this prediction he uses the title ‘Son of Man’, a title interchangeable with Messiah. The profession of faith marked a turning point in the ministry of Jesus. Jesus asked his disciples to keep his identity a secret (messianic secrecy theme). He is now prepared to show them the other side of the messiahship – the cross. From now on, the way of the cross will feature as a challenge to discipleship. The glory of the messiah will only be attained through suffering, overcoming hostilities and persecutions. Jesus is, therefore, not a political messiah. THE TRANSFIGURATION: Jesus has just talked about the suffering messiah. The transfiguration then comes as a dazzling contrast to what he has just mentioned before. Jesus teaching was so different that it needed divine backing. The voice from heaven will command his followers to listen to this new teaching and keep it. The basic structure and meaning of this event is shared by all three Gospel writers. All highlight the symbolism of the cloud and light and voice and mountain which gather around the figures of Moses and Elijah. But in Luke, what do these signify? Moses and Elijah, represent the Law and the Prophets, or figures that have ascended into heaven, or figures who were expected to return. All these representations serve as support to Jesus and clarifications regarding his identity against those who wanted to capture and routinize the presence of God’s glory, or those who wanted to treat Jesus as the equal of Moses and Elijah. Hence, the voice from heaven steps in to correct any misapprehension, any misconception of who Jesus is. Jesus is more than a prophet. He is more than John. He is God’s Son and His Chosen one. He is not to be controlled, but must be listened to. It is He who will fulfil the expectations of the Hebrews. That is why the content of their dialogue was on the new exodus: his death, resurrection, and his ascension (his departure which he was about to fulfil in Jerusalem). Notice the disappointing behaviour of the three intimate disciples. They fall asleep. This will repeat itself again when Jesus will be at prayer later (22:45). Peter, confronted with Divine glory fails to call Jesus by the title ‘Lord’, but babbles incoherently about building earthly tents for heavenly beings, a clear indication of how his response before was not accompanied by a clear understanding of the implications of messiahship. The transfiguration fulfils the promised made by Jesus that the Son of Man will come in ‘his glory’. Luke concludes this section with an elaborate statement which stresses the silence of the witnesses. They kept it a messianic secret, telling no one in those days until the Son of Man had risen from the dead. Luke 9:37-50: THE FLAWED OR IMPERFECT DISCIPLES (The Epileptic Demoniac) Luke has closely connected this episode with the transfiguration and reveals the mercy of Christ. This is to show that the mercy of the mighty deeds of Jesus will come from the mercy of the cross. Here we can identify three contrasts. Jesus comes down from the Mountain into a world that is in need of liberation. Luke describes the miserable condition of the sick child. This is necessary to contrast it with the power of the mercy of Jesus. A second contrast is that of Jesus as the Master who is more powerful over the forces of evil than are his disciples. The power of the disciple is now put in perspective as a participation in the messianic authority of Jesus. In this context, due to their inability Jesus lambastes them: faithless and perverse generation. Although it is difficult to interpret this rebuke; since neither the boy’s father nor the disciples have apparently shown any lack of faith, we may want to look beyond. Jesus must be involving more than the boy’s father and the disciples. Either Luke is trying to provide the third contrast: the fidelity of Jesus to God versus human infidelity in general, or probably that Jesus’ cries because his deeds of mercy will be greeted with disbelief and will eventually leads him to the cross. Since Luke's attention is on Jesus’ power, he omits the teaching in Mark, at this point, on prayer and fasting. However, the prophetic theme still appears as it reminds us of the Sinai experience of Moses and his return to find his people in a sin of disbelief or apostasy. Unlike the anger of Moses, Jesus heals, corrects and shows mercy. Jesus then makes the second prophecy of his passion. He has just healed the epileptic demoniac. ‘The Son of Man is to be handed over to men’. Yet this provokes an argument about 61 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level rank, as they failed to understand Jesus. Jesus insists that the greatness of the apostles is not derived from themselves but from the mission of representation on which they have been sent. Hence, their attitude towards mission must be characterized by humility and service of the little ones. Luke introduces a strange exorcist who was not one of the disciples. He uses this to teach that the disciple of Jesus does not sit in judgement but looks at the fruits, and is ready to accept the action of God in unexpected people and places. With this, the disciples are now ready to begin the journey with Jesus to Jerusalem. PART TWO: Luke 9:51-19:44THE JOURNEY TO JERUSALEM: JESUS UNDERTAKES THE PASCHAL MYSTERY This section of Luke's Gospel has been described as the great middle section. (See introductory notes regarding the style, purpose etc of this section). Suffice it to mention here that most of the material is from Luke and Q sources. The transfiguration had mentioned this great exodus to Jerusalem. Now Jesus resolutely turns towards Jerusalem. From this point until he reaches, Luke constantly reminds us that Jesus is on the way. Here, Luke will strengthen his thesis that Jesus is the great prophet. As a prophet on his way to Jerusalem, Jesus speaks the word of God. Hence, the bulk in this section is made of sayings. Jesus does performs some wonders including exorcism, (11:14), healing of a bent woman (13:10-13), healing of the man with dropsy (14:1-6), ten lepers (17:11-19) and the blind man (18:35-43). The rest of the times he is speaking. As he speaks he is shown to be surrounded by three distinct groups: the disciples, who increasingly emerged as significant hearers of the word; the crowd (people) and his opponents: the Pharisees and Scribes. In every instance, Luke carefully notes the audience of Jesus. To each group he makes Jesus speak differently. To the crowd he issues warnings and calls to a change of heart. To converts and his disciples he gives positive instructions on how to better remain his follows. To his opponents, he tells them parables of rejection. Luke alternates the audience, having Jesus turn from one group to another from time to time. When he reaches the city, he is greeted by a multitude of disciples ready to listen to him around the Temple grounds. 62 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level CHAPTER TENACCEPTANCE AND REJECTION: Seventy Two disciples sent forth. (1-16) This section reports the mission of the seventy two. This is a unique episode in Luke. Matthew and Mark make the sending of the Twelve and this into a single event. Luke makes Jesus sends the Twelve (the number of the tribes of Israel) and later the 72, (the traditional number of the Gentile nations). This is the same idea behind the multiplication of the loaves and it ties with his theme of universalism. Luke seems also to make this analogous to Moses’ choice of 72 elders in Exodus, to stress again the prophetic nature of Jesus and compare him to Moses. Indeed, Rabbinic literature as hinted by the Septuagints had it that the number of nations in the Gentile world was 72. In this second mission, Luke adds prophetic denunciation of cities including Chorazin, Bethsaida, Capernaum which are all Jewish towns. He also includes pronouncements on acceptance and rejection from the Q source: ‘anyone who welcomes you welcomes me…’ These highlight Luke's theme of acceptance and rejection. The messengers are sent in twos to give witness that can be formal testimony. Jesus urges prayer for more workers, indicating that the Lord of the Harvest is concerned about the progress of his disciples. Indeed, in this issue of discipleship, there is no need for illusions, Luke stresses. The disciples will be lambs among wolves, defenceless, completely dependent on the Lord of the harvest for whatever is needed. The proclamation of the Gospel is God’s word and must not be treated as any human message. ‘Take it or leave.”Luke 10:17-20: The Return of the Seventy-two The disciples return with amazement at the power that has been given them through the name of Jesus, over demons. In this, Jesus foresees the eschatological battle between good and evil, and the victory over evil. Yet the disciples must not loose their perspective: the prize is not human glory but glory through following Jesus to Jerusalem, to Calvary. Luke 10: 21-24: THE PRAYER OF JESUS ON REVELATION TO THE SIMPLE Luke takes up again the theme of divine reversal, expressed in God’s pleasure to reveal ‘these things’ to mere children; the lowly and the simple. Indeed, his Gospel has been referred often to as the Plain man’s Gospel. We read something of the kind of things Jesus prayed for in this section. The prayer is an exuberant outcry provoked by the report of the disciples. In this we come to understand that Jesus is the revealer of the Father. Jesus, on saying this prayer turns to the disciples. Luke 10: 25-42: THE PARABLE OF THE GOOD SAMARITAN At this point, Luke introduces a series of teachings which may be arranged under the general theme of qualities, or characteristics of the Kingdom. He does this through direct teaching, parables and at times incidents. The guiding question here is WHAT TO DO IN ORDER TO ENTER THE KINGDOM OF HEAVEN The setting is the journey to Jerusalem. Luke creates an occasion during which a doctor of the law tests Jesus regarding what to do to inherit eternal life. Remarkably, Jesus throws the question back to him. “What do you find in the Law?” This is normally an indication that such a question is not called for, since the answer is obvious: Love of God and love of neighbor. Luke combines the Shema of Deuteronomy (6:4-5) and Leviticus 19:18 into a single commandment of love of God and love of neighbor, thus giving them the same weight. For fear that his question is not regarded as too cheap, the lawyer sets out to justify himself, asking: And who is my neighbor. This leads Jesus to the parable of the Good Samaritan. In the lawyer’s question, he was setting limits to love. Jesus then gives a condition for entry into the kingdom. We must practice limitless love. Jesus is out to teach that we need to have the kind of love that seeks the good of all men under all circumstances. This is also a story of Christian discipleship. Hence, the true disciple of Christ must possess this quality: love of God, often expressed in and through prayer and contemplation, and love of neighbor often experienced in the active life. Jesus therefore, challenges a wrong but 63 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level accepted pattern of thought among the Jewish religious leaders, so that the values of the Kingdom can be lived. Contrary to the Jewish notions, Samaritans thought as not good enough are now presented as models. Jesus insists that no one must be discriminated against, not even out of ritual systems and laws. He underscores that fact that one’s neighbour is anyone, depending on the attitude of love we show. In this way he sets the Law of love above any other law. This is the law that must govern the action of those who belong to the Kingdom. The parable uses several characters including a traveller robbed and assaulted, whose helpless state makes him represent the outcasts of the Jewish society, a Levite and a priest unconcerned and manifesting neglect and representing the proponents of Jewish exclusivism in ritual and legal matters, a Samaritan and stranger assisting a helpless, spending from personal resources over one he does not even know, representing the model of one whose love is genuine and knows no bounds. The robbers are then to be regarded as the agents of the evil kingdom that afflict humankind. Jesus’ open-ended attitude leaves it a matter of personal decision to imitate the Samaritan. It becomes obvious that Jesus is out to Teaching on discipleship: The disciple of Christ operates in terms of love for anyone in need of it. Luke wants us to see Jesus as the Lord who intends to save all and does not admit of outcasts be they racial or due to physical defects. Jesus teaches what genuine charity should consist in: Christians must go beyond the ritual and legalistic adherence of the Jews that leaves them blind to obvious needs of the neighbour. This is quite a relevant passage for out times. Today, our world is still open to the practical problem of armed robbers who take advantage of this call to be good to all, making the Gospel difficult to practice. Situations of this sort abound even in modern times. Tribalism and nationalism are overtaking many in our midst and making the gospel difficult to live, yet, we must relief everyone from even bodily wants to the utmost of our abilities, uninfluenced by any partial considerations of situation and circumstances. We must take heed of ourselves too, otherwise, we pervert the principles of religion.Luke 10:38-42: Jesus at the house of Martha and Mary The idea of active life and contemplation is taken up again in this incident at the house of Martha and Mary. Luke tells this incident, as a follow up of the commandment to love. The most important thing about being a disciple is adherence to Christ in a personal manner. This implies there must be time to listen to the word. Devotion to Christ is the most important thing. This is a condition for belonging to the Kingdom: communion with God. The sisters represent those who receive the prophet at home. We must remember that the territory is a hostile one. Jesus finds a home here. Luke refines the understanding of hospitality. The one thing necessary for hospitality is attention to guest. If the guest is a prophet, then listening to his prophetic word is best. Hence, it is not a question of providing service, but receiving a gift. We often find ourselves in the pattern of avoidance exhibited by the Levites, the self- justifying bluster of the lawyer, the irritation of a dutiful daughter, Martha. But we must move beyond ourselves to assume the compassion that that translates itself into the self-giving that takes risks, that disposes of the self and of one’s possessions, the hospitality that receives the other as the other wishes to be received and that listens. 64 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level CHAPTER ELEVENLk 11:1-13 JESUS’ TEACHING ON PRAYER The Gospel of Luke has often been referred to as a Gospel of prayer. We have elaborated on this when introducing the Gospel. (Cf. the Characteristics of the Gospel of Luke). This section of the Gospel highlights what has been considered as the ‘prayer par excellence’ or the perfect example or model of prayer as taught by Christ. Luke has just shown Jesus at prayer, typical of his style and purpose. A while ago, Jesus in prayer called God Father, and acknowledged his way of bring about the Kingdom: I bless you Father… (10:21). He ended that prayer saying only the Son knows the Father, and those to whom the Son chooses to reveal Him. Naturally, then, he chooses to reveal the Father to the disciples. Luke adds the phrase regarding John to insist that Jesus had prophetic authority. The content of the prayer can be compared with that of the Sermon on the Mount found in Matthew 6:9-13. Hence, they must have gotten this prayer from the common source Q. However, Luke's version is shorter. Luke prayer seems to include five imperatives: the first two concern the holiness of God and the establishment of the Kingdom. The final three ask for necessary provisions, the forgiveness of sins and the freedom from testing. These last petitions follow the major themes of the Gospel: the kingdom, trusting in Providence, forgiveness and liberation from the powers of darkness. Like Matthew, Divine forgiveness is related to the forgiveness of other. THE PARABLE OF THE FRIEND AT MIDNIGHT: Luke reinforces this teaching with a parable: prayer must be accompanied by persistence or importunacy. Persistent prayer is heard. The Father’s response to those who ask is higher than the response of a human father. At the background of this is the reality that at times we encounter some difficulties which we are unable to handle by trusting only on our abilities. As a disciple of Christ committed to prayer and charity, we need to be like the importunate friend. As people who have received from God and are ready to give without charge, we must represent the Friend, who indeed represents the Merciful God. Luke gives the prescriptive text: ask and it will be given to you, known and the door will be opened. Prayer is a question of asking, searching and knocking. Luke 11:14-28: JESUS AND BEELZEBUL – SOURCE OF JESUS’ AUTHORITY One of the areas of conflict between Jesus and the religious leaders of his time was that of the source of his authority. This section does not only highlight this reality but sets before us what we may call the two Kingdoms. We may also regard this episode as one that raises the question of spiritual discernment. The disciple of Christ needs this spiritual discernment to recognize the Kingdom in Jesus, the power at work in him. Luke begins with a brief exorcism of a mute demon. He uses this episode to set the charges against Jesus. It becomes clear that the work of the prophet creates division in the people: those astonished and will later praise him and those who are negative. This negative camp are two groups: those who charge him of conspiracy with the prince of demons and the other that ‘tests him’ by asking him for a sign from heaven. Luke is the only one who mentions this second negative group to link those who put Jesus to the test with the demon, for this is his work. This makes the entire scene ironical. Indeed, Jesus points out the absurdity of the accusation. If he is working for Beelzebul, then how can Beelzebul destroy his own kingdom? Beelzebul was a popular name for master of demons. When Jesus casts out demons it is a sign that there is a greater power at work which can have only God as its source. The opponents of Jesus are blind to these signs (signs of the kingdom). Jesus compares himself as a victorious warrior carrying away the very weapons Satan has been relying on. In this section, Jesus warns those criticising him, that there is no middle ground: either one if for Jesus or against him. About those who have been converted, or exorcised, if the place is not occupied by the Kingdom of God, then it still belongs to Beelzebul. This open confrontation begins a section of conflict which will end up making the Pharisees and the Lawyers resolve to make a concerted effort to trap Jesus in his speech. In this section we understand also how Luke understands the structure of a Kingdom. There is the ruler who exerts power through the subordinates who do his will. Luke presents two 65 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level kingdoms: Satan’s and God’s. A sure sign that the Kingdom of God has arrived is that Jesus drives out Satan’s subordinates. A sign that the Kingdom of God has reached you is that there is healing and exorcism. Luke sets these kingdoms in a battle. This is clear in the minor parable he adds to this section about the strong man. The strong but heavily armed man, who relied on his possessions has a place, but is overcome by a stronger person. Luke in this section is contrasting the disciples and the opponents of Jesus. He has just taught his disciples how to pray and ask for the Holy Spirit. His opponents instead are asking for a sign from heaven. Rather that pray not to be put to the test, they test Jesus. Rather than ask for forgiveness they accuse Jesus of the sin of collusion with Satan. Rather than recognize Jesus as the proclaimer of the Kingdom they accuse him of promoting the rule of Satan. Finally, Luke in this section continues to stress Jesus as a prophet. Firstly, he knows their thoughts. In the expression ‘finger of God’ there is an allusion to Moses’ prophetic power. (Ex8:19) To this is tied the notion of acceptance or rejection of the prophet.Luke11:27–28: Prophetic warnings In this section Luke tells us how Jesus understands true happiness: acceptance of the prophet by listening to his word and putting it to practice. In this way he reiterates his point made before, that physical motherhood is subordinate to this spiritual relationship open to all. Luke does not intend to exclude Mary, but to show where her real excellence lies. Sign of Jonah (11:29–32) Luke does not talk of the three days in the belly of the fish. But merely presents Jonah as a sign to the people of Niniveh and likening him to Jesus, who is a sign to this generation. Jesus is answering those asking him for a sign of his spiritual authority. Jonah has a message of salvation. Jesus too has a message of salvation. Luke signals a warning to the Jews that the gentiles will respond to the message of salvation by being more open to God. Eye and Light (11:34–36) Jesus is the light. The Gospel he proclaims is light. Whoever rejects him rejects the light. The lamp of the Gospel is always burning. We must remember that we are with Jesus on the journey to Jerusalem. He is faced with several persons: The apostles, the Pharisees, the crowds etc. Luke makes sure he keeps turning to the one group or the other addressing them.Cursing Pharisees and Lawyers (11:37–54) Jesus launches an attack on his opponents. A long form of these attacks is found in Matthew 23:1-36. Jesus’ conflict with the Pharisees and lawyers is what we read here. In Luke the conflict is used to mark a critical point in the growing hostility between the prophet Jesus and his critics. The setting is a meal in the home of a Pharisee. The host does not show his guest the spirit of hospitality typical of the Jews of his time. What is at stake: Jesus had defended the apostles on issues regarding the fasting. He defended himself on his practice of healing on the Sabbath (6:1-11). Now the issue is on his failure to observe the purity regulations advocated by the Pharisee party. This time, rather than defending himself, he launches a counter attack which ends up in explicitly rejecting his opponents. They too in turn become resolved to trap him because of their terrible grudge against him. Jesus launches a full scale condemnation of the general religious attitude associated with the Pharisees. He accuses them of emphasizing externals in religion while overlooking in their own conduct the breach of essentials. He mentions the absurdity of religiously cleaning the outside of a cup, while one’s own inside is full of evil. He gives an antidote to greed, namely charity and almsgiving. He speaks in a universal manner regarding the advantages of poverty and the opportunities the rich have to become acceptable. He attacks the Pharisees for making the practice of tithes payment become a distraction covering the neglect of justice and charity. He attacks their blindness which has now made them a danger to those they are trying to lead. Of course one of the lawyers at table is offended. Yet this brings Jesus to attack them outright for using the law as a rod to punish the people instead of interpreting it for them as a gift66 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level from God. You have taken away the key of knowledge: the means of true understanding of God and salvation, and are misusing the law thus, misleading people. In criticising them, Jesus condemns the attitude of their ancestors. He calls on the present generation to account for the blood of Abel (Gen4), Zacchariah, the son of Jehoida, (Chr 24:17-22). This leads to the setting of traps to catch Jesus. 67 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level CHAPTER TWELVEOpen and Fearless Discipleship (12:1–12) Jesus continues to school the disciples on the way to Jerusalem. Some of Luke’s material in this chapter comes from Q and some from Luke himself. The atmosphere is electric. There is a pressing crowd trampling on one another, there are the disciples he is addressing and there is the opponent waiting to trap him on anything he would say. In the light of events preceding, addressing the issue of fear and anxiety now is just apt. Now is the time to face terror at arrest, persecution and even death. The disciple is to avoid the hypocrisy of the Pharisees. The external impressions can never hide the internal person. Hence, all personal secrets will be revealed on the day of judgement. The disciple cannot hide anything. He must be transparent in his convictions. The way that fears, especially the fear of death could create cowards. Hypocrisy is rooted in such fear. Luke has Jesus also recommend a higher form of fear to relativize the fear of human disapproval, namely, the fear of the God. This leads Jesus to advice his disciples. For the first time he calls them ‘friends’. The conflict they face is not one that is merely against human agents. They are in conflicts too with spiritual forces. Those who oppose the prophet and his apostles are ‘slanderers of the Holy Spirit’. The word spoken against the son of man may be forgiven, but not that spoken against the Holy Spirit. In this section the disciple is made to know that the denial of Jesus in the Gospel can be reversed by conversion.On Riches: Parable of the Rich Fool (12:13–34) Luke uses a technique to move from addressing his disciples to addressing the crowd pressing round him. Jesus is interrupted by a man who needs help in acquiring his rightful share of the family inheritance. It was not only a rude interruption, but also had no relevance to what Christ was saying, in this way it betrayed an insensitivity to matters of extreme importance. Yet this provides a setting for Luke, who connects fear and riches. To stress how selfish this rude interrupter is, Luke makes him the only cast in the parable. The action here which Jesus is attacking is the accumulation of wealth, since in it we see the very greed of the Pharisees he has been warning his disciples about. The rich man would be the type for many who are so wealthy that they do not have room to store all they have. Those who, in their riches, lack the wisdom to share, thinking they would accumulate and enjoy themselves without God. But he is a fool, because in the midst of his good fortune he has lost the sense of what is really important. Naturally, Jewish expectation was that this man is justified since he has to enjoy the fruits of his labour, which until now has been considered as a blessing from God. In his riches, man thinks he is securing this frail life with possessions and so eliminating any eventual fear. Jesus ends up in underscoring that man proposes but God disposes. He attacks the Jewish notion about riches and shows that what they consider a blessing is truly poverty before God. He shows that fear does not only threaten life, but generates obsession. Wealth is a gift from God and must lead us to generously dispose of possessions. Luke’s teaching is obvious from some prescriptive texts we find in this section: ‘Take heed and beware of all that covetousness: for man’s life does not consist in the abundance of his possessions... So is he who lays treasure for himself and is not rich before God.’ It becomes obvious that this parable is about the eschatological dimension of the Kingdom, the future coming of the Son of Man. To this theme is tied the retribution of Yahweh, and his implementation of true justice. We have been reflecting on wisdom versus foolishness which contain in themselves the theme of the great reversal and lays grounds for this to occur, for the rich will become and poor and vice versa. Luke truly intends that the rich share with the poor as a condition of acceptance of the prophet. Today, we are aware of tendencies to accumulate wealth at almost every levels including embezzlement, since many still think they are the ones to determine their tomorrow. The process of evangelization has not stopped insisting as Christ does, that accountability before God is a reality no one can escape from. 68 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level Jesus exhorts his disciples to learn from the birds and the flowers. Although birds die, and flowers whither and fade Luke intends more to show that as human beings we have a destiny and life on earth is not the only life we have to live. Yet what a man owns now has consequences for the future. This implies a more radical call to sell what one owns and give alms. Jesus is condemning an anxious approach to life that subconsciously denies God as the loving Father who has everything carefully under his control. We need to trust then in Providence. Jesus won this battle already during the temptations in the desert. Hence, parting with what one depends on is the best way to learn the freedom of the kingdom. The attitude towards earthly goods is not an indifferent or innocent question; it is the barometer of what is really important in a person’s life. Parable of the Faithful Servant (12:35–48) With the mention of the kingdom, Luke presents more sayings of Jesus regarding the coming of the son of Man (parousia) and judgment. The disciple is challenged to be constantly ready for the master’s return. The parable of the Faithful servant is found in the three Gospels. All the synoptic writers place this within the framework of eschatology. Luke, however, makes the master return home and makes a reversal of roles to anticipate the Last Supper. The parable is in response to Peter’s intervention when he asked Jesus: ‘Master, do you really intend this parable to us too or for all? The parable is a natural development of the theme on fear and anxiety. The underlying question is: whom should the disciple fear. The disciple should fear the judgement of God that will be carried out at the coming of the Son of Man. This coming is compared to a sudden and unexpected one known to a thief in the night. The attitude of watchfulness must be observed even when the coming of the master seems delayed. We equally learn here that judgment is an inevitable reality, and it is one that is not merely temporal, but existential. God judges humans at every moment. In this section, Luke creates several images to help him put across his point: the image of the master coming home, finding his servant awake and waiting for him, and then – the reversal; the image of authority as service. Luke intends to warn the present leaders of the people regarding their abuse of authority. This is obvious from the prescriptive text: The greater the gift given, the greater the responsibility and the greater the judgement. The attitude prescribed for avoiding judgement is watchfulness or a vigilant hope. Such watchfulness is particularly necessary for those who are leaders. The judgement on leaders will be particularly heavy. A CALL TO DECISION (12:49–59) Luke does not identify the audience in this section. But it would appear he is addressing the crowd as a whole. The necessity to be watchful is made even stronger by the decisive nature of man’s relationship with God. Jesus talks about fire and baptism to refer to his death and the consequences. His death and resurrection are the decisive events in all history, and has become the basis on which the destiny of all depends. Against this background, all must decide either for or against him. Jesus is the bringer of peace, but it is a peace which for its fulfilment must wait eternity. In history, the prophet Jesus is out to bring division, a division which enters into the most sacred relationships. The division is created by the diverse decisions made in response to Jesus and his message about the Kingdom of God. To be vigilant must lead to the sacrifice of the most treasured human ties. On the one hand, we have those who think that both he and his works are signs of a greater power over that of Satan. On the other hand, there are those who reject him, arguing he is an agent of Satan deceiving the people. Those who see him must not allow darkness to overcome them. Those who listen to him must watch how they hear. The follower of Christ must discern the signs of the kingdom and decide. The sad thing is that people failed to sense this decisiveness of his presence. They could predict the weather but were blind to the judgement Jesus’ presence brings. In the parable of judgement, Jesus insists that God’s judgment is near. Even so, there is time to make a settlement by accepting Him as the Messiah and Lord. Refusal will make judgement inevitable.69 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level CHAPTER THIRTEENMEMBERSHIP IN THE KINGDOM OF GOD (13:1-14:35) REPENTANCE (13:1–14:6) Luke presents a section which shows that membership in the Kingdom Jesus brings is based on quite different considerations from the Jewish expectations symbolized in the Pharisaic prescriptions. Those the Pharisees excluded from the Kingdom (the lost sinners), Jesus invites, and the Pharisees themselves were shut out unless they repented. In this connection, mention is made of the Zealots. They, on the one hand, would judge the workers on the tower of Siloam to be particularly wicked. Pilate had built an aqueduct in Jerusalem, funded by the temple tax. The Zealot would have considered work on this to be a fatal compromise with the Romans and a denial of loyalty to God, and the accident as God’s punishment. They wanted a Messianic age to be established through violence. Jesus insists that both Pilate and the Zealots were wrong, in their conception of the Kingdom – whatever the method of bring it. They were self-centred. For them, the coming of the Kingdom meant the replacement of the Romans by the Jews as world conquerors. Unless they repented, they will all perish. Hence, Jesus declares himself against violence. Were it not for the patience of God, they would have perished already. It is in this light of Divine patience, that Jesus introduces the idea of the tree that bears no fruit. Repentance and acceptance of Jesus are immediate necessities. Healing a woman on Sabbath (13:10–17) Religious leaders too are greatly in need of repentance. Jesus uses the hypocritical blindness of the leaders to illustrate his point. The synagogue officials cannot see what is happening right before his eyes – how the kingdom brings liberty to the infirm imprisoned by sickness for eighteen years. The letter of the Law has so blinded the Pharisees. They allowed animals to be taken care of on the Sabbath but not women. Now in reaction, the official fails to confront Jesus who had worked the miracle, but vents his anger on the people, and action that produces the kind of division Jesus talked about a while ago: the crowd rejoices, but the opponents are ‘put to shame’. Hence, judgement is already taking place. Repentance for the Pharisee would mean a change of mind in the way they perceive the Law. Parables of Mustard seed and Leaven (13:18–21) The opponents of Jesus grow even more embittered rather than repent. Their grudge against Jesus is fixed. To this effect, Luke includes two small parables of growth of the Kingdom. They stand as a sharp contrast to the direction of growth the opposition against Jesus was taking. Luke puts the parables within a highly charged situation of conflict. Both parables contrast small beginnings with powerful results: the seed shoots into a tree; the yeast leavens a whole lump. Both parables contrast also the hidden with the manifest: the seed is planted but becomes visible in the plant; the yeast is hidden in the flour and is known only because of the growth it gives. So too, the kingdom proclaimed by Christ is victorious over Satan’s kingdom is just as small acts of liberation as worked by Christ. The kingdom will achieve its end not through pump but by the mysterious power hidden in Jesus. The Narrow Gate (13:22–30) A question is posed, which creates the setting for Jesus to insist on the seriousness of the need for repentance on the part of the self-righteous. Jesus does not answer the question but the questioner, who felt he was among those to be saved or included in the banquet of the Kingdom of God. Jesus issues his reply as a prophetic warning to repentance. No one is saved by accident of birth into the Jewish nation, not by merit for observing the Law. The door to salvation is narrow to admit anyone who is loaded with his own religious accomplishments. Jesus himself is the Door. What counts is repentance and faith in him. In a second pronouncement made by Jesus, he was reacting to a message from the Pharisees that Herod seeks to kill him and a lament over the fate of Jerusalem. This lament over Jerusalem takes us to the scene of the trial of Jesus, and we begin to understand why Luke puts all these persons together and in relation to the wrong way in which kings of the earth pass judgement. We have encountered Pilate, then Herod and of course the Jewish leaders. 70 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level CHAPTER FOURTEEN Healing the man with dropsy (14:1–6) Luke takes us back to the meal setting. The journey to Jerusalem is still on. But Jesus pops into the house of one of the leading Pharisees for a meal. Those present include Lawyers and Pharisees. It was the Sabbath and trouble was looming. Luke himself signals that ‘they had him under close scrutiny’. We need not remind ourselves here that these are the people having a fixed grudge against Jesus and were laying a trap for him. Hence, this invitation of the Pharisees was hypocritical. The appearance of a man suffering from dropsy sets the possibility for conflict. Dropsy or edema is a disease whereby the body retains too much fluid with attendant problems of swelling and poor blood circulation often caused by excessive sodium consumption. Jesus is faced with the issuer of healing on a Sabbath. Jesus immediately posed this issue. His fellow guests – the lawyers – remained silent. Jesus heals and poses the legal argument to them regarding the help they would give to their animals vis-a-vis that which they would give to a person. The theme of universalism is included. The Pharisees should have invited people like the man with the dropsy. This is the final controversy on the Sabbath recorded by Luke. Jesus is once again the Lord of the Sabbath who champions the cause of mercy and compassion. Hence, the Lucan Jesus is a compassionate liberator. Parables of the Guests, (14:7-11) The parable seems to be based on the principle that honours cannot be taken, but can only be received. But we must go beyond this principle in considering this parable. The setting is still the meal and Jesus is addressing his opponents. It was theirs to take fronts seats and places of honour at banquets. Jesus calls for humility. To consider this parable deeper, it is a parable of the Messianic feast, the time of salvation, when those delivered by God will eat with him. The principle of the reversal of humility and exaltedness is a sign that in the Kingdom the values of this world will not count. Jesus shows himself as the chief guest. Their silence leaves Jesus to address a series of parables to them. Wedding Feast: Invitation to the Banquet. (14:16-24) In this parable, Jesus contrasts those who consider themselves the elect and those who are the non-elect. The wisdom of Jesus consists in the fact that God will not be fooled by one’s self- promotion. Jesus highlights what we may refer to as the Greco-Roman reciprocity whereby friends, who have everything in common come to one another’s aid. Luke moves away from this mentality. He is universal. We need to invite people from all walks of life: the poor, the maimed, lame and blind. These people must not be spurned. Those who are truly righteous are those who have share the food of life with such unfortunate and disadvantaged people. This parable concludes Luke’s extensive use of the food motif. He is now going to concentrate on the motif of the elect failing to respond to God’s kingdom. The first two excuses concern the pursuit of mammon. Luke intends that we see those rejecting the invitation as belonging to the Pharisee and Lawyer camp. This is not a parable of the rejection of the Jews since those who still came in were Jews. Hence, it is a parable of rejection by the leaders and not by the marginalized. We see Luke’s inventiveness: three invited, three excuses, three sending. Those who are called in the second and third sending do not rate less before the eyes of God. The fact that Luke brings in the idea of marriage is not meant to downplay women. Rather, we could see that Luke also favours celibacy. The idea of forcing is obvious because even the poor would resist such an invitation until they are literally taken by the hand. The Lucan Jesus is Lord of the eschatological banquet. Jesus calls for conversion. Parables of the Tower and War (14:25-35) Once more, Jesus turns to the crowd and addresses them. This material is unique to Luke. He lays down the conditions for discipleship. Firstly, Divine election is a favour and is gratuity or free. However, it demands full-hearted response, total commitment. Jesus tells two parables that give us the necessity to reflect before acting. Anyone who wants to follow Jesus must weigh the cross. A disciple must see things to their completion and must never recoil even if this would entail sacrifices. Do not start if you would not finish. Jesus gives the fate of those who fail to do so. All 71 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level disciples must be ready to renounce their possessions. He must not engage himself in his possessions so much so that he becomes blind to a prophetic imperative. His allegiance to the Master must never deteriorate and become inactive. Salt helps in preserving this and making them not decay. The disciple must be salt, not tasteless salt though. Whoever becomes tasteless salt will be thrown out. 72 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level CHAPTER FIFTEENDivine mercy for sinners thrice illustrated Still within the context of Jesus’ indiscriminate table fellowship, Luke gives three parables: the lost sheep, the lost coin and the lost Son. We may also add: lost brother. Luke still has in mind the division regarding the prophet. The tax-agents and sinners are the outcasts who respond positively. The Pharisees and Scribes represent the rich and powerful who react negatively. The Pharisees placed some people outside God’s mercy. Should this be the case? These parables break all human restrictions on how God should act towards sinners. His mercy is as foolish as a pastor who abandons 99 sheep in search for one, or a woman who turns her house upside down to recover a paltry sum, and a Jewish father who joyfully welcomes home his prodigal son who has become a Gentile. With such a merciful God, the disciples can embark on the way to God joyfully. Notice that Luke shows God’s love for sinners through a man and a woman. The entire chapter bears the theme of joy. Luke gives this theme four emphasis: 1) He makes the motif of universality, community and salvation to be complementary. This is cause for joy. 2) Conversion is a requisite for finding joy. 3) Happiness consists essentially in a willingness to share in God’s own joy in dispensing salvation. 4) Jesus issues the call to participate in God’s love and joy. The parable of the prodigal son reminds us of biblical stories about two brothers in which the younger one is favoured against the elderly one. Hence it alludes to the story of Esau and Jacob, Joseph and his brothers. The parable includes the theme of reversal. Jesus reverses expectations. The younger son is pardoned; the elderly son is invited to the feast. This younger brother has gone into the Gentile world. Pigs were sacrificial animals for the pagans. His behaviour has become undignified. However, the Father, representing the merciful God reacts differently. Some have referred to this parable as the parable of the Merciful Father. The elder brother exaggerates the sin of his younger one. He vents the anger he has for the Father on his brother referring to him as one who consorts with prostitutes. His language remarkably reveals his anger. He refers to himself as slave of the father, who does not merit even a goat. He fails to recognise his constant position of privilege with the father with whom he has been sharing everything in common. He is blind to the fact that his father extends to him the same constant care as he does with the younger brother. He dissociates himself from the brother, referring to him as the son of the father. The father in turn reminds him the younger is still his brother. Conclusively, the lost are found, the dead are raised, sinners repent because of the call of the prophet Jesus. The elder son then represents the Pharisaic refusal to share in this good news of forgiveness and salvation. They, like the elder son have stayed within the covenant without wandering off. They regarded themselves then as better and righteous. 73 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level CHAPTER SIXTEEN Danger of Riches: (16:1-31) Luke unites this chapter under the theme of using possessions for others especially the needy.Unjust steward: God and Mammon (16:1-13) Jesus now turns to the disciples. Luke takes off from the outstanding symptom of the prodigal son’s independence, that is, the selfish use of possessions. Jesus teaches here that for those who are in the Kingdom, obedience to the will of God is the central mark of their lives. This must show itself in the unselfish use of possessions for the good of others. Interpreting the parable of the unjust stewards poses three major problems: it is difficult to determine where the parable ends and where the moral lessons begin. This confusion is helped by the term Lord or Master. At what time is it referring to Jesus and to the master of the steward? Was it Jesus who approved the cleverness or astuteness of steward or was it the voice of the master. If it was Jesus is that to mean he was approving the man’s immoral behaviour? This leads to the second problem: what was the nature of the household manager’s action? Did he continue his fraudulent action for his own advantage and continued cheating the master? Or did he sacrifice something of what was legally owed him as an agent to secure the good friends? In both cases was he behaving correctly? Was he wicked in the first instance (wasting his master’s money) and clever in the second instance or was his cleverness also wicked? A third problem is the moral lesson regarding serving two masters and the way in which the reader is called to use the wicked mammon in a reliable manner. To pay attention to these technicalities would not help us render the passage properly. Instead if we consider the way Luke has arranged these passages. Jesus has just been speaking about the same subject to his opponents. Now he wants to be positive. The manager’s trouble began with the way he used the goods belonging to another man. Luke tries to show that mammon can seduce a disciple away from God, yet the disciple must use mammon – now – for alms. The steward represents the enthusiastic response which children of this age show in their dealings with one another and contrasts sharply with the response of the disciples to Jesus’ kingdom. Disciples need to be sharp enough to convert mammon into heavenly capital by sharing with others. The fidelity of the disciple must be a daily affair. The treasures we have are given to us by God on loan. We need to share them in order that we receive from the same God the eternal treasure. To do this, the disciple must give exclusive loyalty to God or make a choice to succumb to the enslavement of mammon. Loyalty to God shows itself in giving away possession in almsgiving. Whoever clings to possession is separating himself from God.The Claims of Moses and the Prophets: (16:14-31) Luke brings in the Pharisees. They have been listening to what Jesus was saying. Now Luke portrays them as lovers of money, who now mock Jesus. It becomes clear that they are a sectarian class that are rich. The negative examples of the Pharisees abound in Luke. He describes them as greedy and self-exalting. In this way he presents them as false teachers and an abomination before God. It is remarkable that Luke connects greed and sexual sins (divorce and adultery). Today the issue of divorce and remarriage is still discussed in Christian circles. Jesus makes it clear he came to fulfil the Law and the Prophets, taking our minds back to the Transfiguration. Luke rings the note of universalism. The Gospel is for all not for some restricted rich people. Luke is warning the well of members of the community to avoid greed and immorality by following Jesus’ teaching about almsgiving which accords with the Will of God. He now uses a parable to reinforce this teaching. He will try to question in this parable whether those who are lovers of money can really be hearing Moses and the Prophets. The Parable of Lazarus and Dives (16:19–31) The Latin for rich man is Dives. This name is not used in the English translation though. Dives fails to use his wealth under God’s Lordship, and found it finally to be a great curse. The Pharisees accepted as normal the fact that plenty and poverty should dwell side by side, and were 74 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level not concerned to change the situation. For the Jews, plenty was a sign of God’s favour and poverty a sign of his judgement. The reason for such judgement was considered a mystery hidden and known only to God. Jesus tells this parable to show that God’s thought pattern is different from this Jewish mentality. Possessions are given on trust, to be used as an expression of God’s concern for the needy. Failure to do this implies possessions rather than God is one’s Lord. We must notice also that the story does not condemn the rich man just because he was rich. His condemnation came due to his failure to use his wealth in the service of God through almsgiving to the needy. In this light, Luke introduces the great reversal which he spoke about in the sermon on the Plain: the rich will go empty and the poor will become rich. But towards the end of the parable Jesus makes his parabolic twist. The rich man begs a favour from Lazarus to warn his brothers. We could even see some continuous arrogance in the man. He wants Lazarus to cool his tongue as if he was his servant, and to be sent on his behalf as if he were his messenger. In a very uncompromising way, the reversal is lived. For the one, it is a hopeless situation. The parable, at this point, focuses on the rich man, his five brothers and the readers. Indeed, Dives’ claim that Abraham was his Father has no effect on the reversal of his status. This claim clearly makes Dives a type of the Pharisees. They claimed Abraham was their Father and rejected Jesus. Hence, it turns out to be a call on the Pharisees to repent now of their external loyalty to the Law and turn their hearts towards finding the will of God expressed in the same Law. Moses and the Prophets are sufficient to guide men to God, if they are willing to repent. No need for miracles, startling signs, not even the resurrection of Jesus. We shall see that not even this event produced any repentance or faith on the part of the Pharisees. Hence, it is a parable of rejection. This warning is contemporary, that is, it applies to us today. Our attitude towards possessions is perhaps the clearest indication of whether or not we have repented or our self- centeredness and accepted God’s total Lordship. 75 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level CHAPTER SEVENTEEN TEACHINGS OF JESUS This chapter stretches into Chapter 18 and contains several teachings of Jesus regarding aspects such as the dangers of unbrotherly behaviour, the dangers of Self-esteem, of ingratitude and of false security. Luke makes Jesus to turn to his disciples with positive instruction on the demands of discipleship. Jesus’ concern is their inward renewal, the need for them to be faithful while waiting. INWARD RENEWAL OF THE DISCIPLES: (17:1–10) Most of the second segment of Jesus’ journey to Jerusalem has been characterized by opposition. As he is concluding this section on opposition, Luke returns to the positive note with which he started: renewal. Jesus warns the disciples not to cause their brothers abandon the journey to the Kingdom of God. They are reminded that as they journey on the way of Jesus, they will be opened to bad examples, false teaching and scandals. They are to be careful not to be the ones to cause the scandal. They are to practice forgiveness when a brother sins and repents. Limitless forgiveness therefore, is one of the ways of taking away the causes of scandal among the followers of Christ. Jesus then states the power of faith and suggests that perhaps those who ask for it may not have it. Then he makes a pronouncement that is a lesson drawn from the social expectations of the master/slave relationship: the disciple should not expect thanks for doing simply what they have been commanded to do. Miracle of the Cleansing of ten lepers (17:11–19) Then Jesus performs a miracle through which he teaches his disciples the necessity to be grateful. The story about the healing miracle of the ten lepers accords with the Jewish law. It is proper to Luke and is the fourth in his travel narrative. The lepers were outcasts. They would stay in groups to tone down their misery. Jesus sends them to the priests for examination. The fact that one of them was a Samaritan shows how tragedy at times makes people forget the social stratification principles. The emphasis of the story, as with the other miracles of his travel narrative is not so much the healing but the outcome of the miracle or the sayings or pronouncements attached to it. In this instance the teaching-word would have elements that reveal the messiah, his salvation and his second coming. The Jews felt as members of the chosen people healing was their due. The Samaritan returns to give thanks. Jesus brings salvation to one who has faith. It becomes clear that faith is the only basis for membership in God’s kingdom. The passage also includes the theme of Jesus’ universalism. Both Jews and non-Jews receive healing from Jesus and a Samaritan is included in the kingdom Jesus brings. The disciple must realize that the fellowship of those who follow Christ must transcend every human barrier, since all men are united through faith. Secondly, it is frighteningly possible to receive God’s gracious gift in vain. Yet our ingratitude does not deny us the mercy of God. That is why he does not punish the other nine for failing to give thanks.The Coming Kingdom of God (17:20–37) In this section Luke deals with another dimension of the Kingdom of God. The Old Testament spoke about the coming of the Kingdom, but gave no idea about time. In this way, the Pharisees and the Scribes speculated about its nature and the kind of signs to be associated with its coming. Hence, the Pharisees ask when the Kingdom of God will come. Jesus answers in two folds. First he corrects their external, political ideas about the kingdom. When it arrives, it is not in order to establish an earthly state. The Kingdom is a reality that is present among us. The signs of the Kingdom’s presence are spiritual and can only be interpreted with faith. At the same time the kingdom is a reality that is present in Jesus. Jesus himself is the Kingdom. He, as king of the Kingdom has come, and has cast out demons, healed the sick, and announced the good news of the presence of the Kingdom. Jesus then turns to his disciples to address them regarding the Kingdom that is to come: an eschatological reality. As a present reality, the kingdom shows itself in events such as the cure of the unclean lepers and the grateful faith of a Samaritan. In the eschatological dimension, the coming of the Son of Man will be sudden, and demands preparedness or vigilance. 76 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level The disciples on the way must be prepared, must live in constant expectancy and readiness. They need to be careful not to replace everyday concerns with the active, personal waiting for Jesus’ return. To be ready for this return, the disciples must renounce their attachment to possessions. They are going to face opposition because they are tied to Christ. They must reflect on the purpose of life. Live by faith.77 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level CHAPTER EIGHTEENThis chapter opens with a parable that is closely linked to the previous chapter. The connection is the theme of the coming of the Son of Man. Central, however to this parable of the Unjust Judge is the aspect of Prayer. This will lead Luke to add another parable regarding the prayers made by the Pharisee and the Publican. These two parables are found only in Luke. Parables of the Unscrupulous (Unjust) judge and the Importunate (Persistent) Widow (18:1- 8) We are still on the journey to Jerusalem and Jesus is still instruction his disciples. This time he wants them to be prayerful. Prayer is the best way of reminding ourselves of that this present world is a passing world and that we must keep watch as we wait for the coming of the Kingdom of God, in an attitude of patience and steadfastness. God will not abandon the elect. Fidelity to God must be the engine of prayer. The disciple must be constant, importunate, and persistent. If an unscrupulous, unjust judge could be moved to grant the demands of the importunate widow, how much more effective will persistence be with Him who is called the righteous judge? We can also see ourselves as a widow subject to difficulties, oppression, delayed retribution, and by losing hope and courage, we can become like those whose faith is seasonal and disappears in the face of tribulation. The disciple must not doubt God’s mercy and long-suffering. His response to prayer is faster, his patience is greater.The Parable of the Pharisee and Publican (18:9–14) Luke now alternates the audience. The focus is implicitly on the Pharisees, even though he still makes it a teaching on discipleship. Luke wants to teach that the disciple must depend on God and not on themselves. How would they gain entrance to the kingdom? It will not be by their publicized or advertised works. The disciple must make concrete in their lives the attitude of the tax-collector. We must understand that Luke, all along has been playing around the theme who is righteous and who is not. Luke emphasises three aspects related to righteousness: 1) self-confident boasting of one’s own good deeds will not make us free from the judgement of God. 2) Like Jesus, the disciple must engage in deeds of righteousness such as almsgiving. 3) God has vindicated the righteous one, Jesus Christ, who is suffering innocently. Reading this parable, every reader must internal the values contained in it. This will help us make our love for God not turn into an self- love. What we have received from another (God) can so easily be turned into what we think we have accomplished ourselves. Prayer can be transformed into boasting. Jesus teaches that piety is not an instantly recognizable posture. The one who is pious needs no gift, but assumes God’s role of judge. In this position he enumerates his own claims to be just, but does not end there. He reminds God of the deficiency of the tax-agent, in case God had not noticed. In contrast, the tax- agent is utter simplicity and truth: two virtues so much needed for effective prayer. He is a sinner: hence acknowledgement of our sinfulness is an indispensable ingredient for effective prayer. This is the person who requires God’s gift of righteousness since he has none of his own. The parables of the unscrupulous judge and the Pharisee and the Publican do not only remind us that prayer is a theme, a characteristic of Luke’s Gospel, but tell us why. For Luke, prayer is faith in action. It is not an optional exercise in piety, carried out to demonstrate one’s relationship with God. It is that relationship itself. The way one prays reveals that relationship. If the disciples do not cry out day and night to the Lord, then they themselves lack faith. Similarly, if prayer is self-assertion before God, then it cannot be answered by God’s gift of righteousness. Hence, humility and self-abasement open the door to God’s mercy. Here again, we see Luke making use of his theme of the reversal of status. Little children blessed (18:15–17) Luke is about concluding his stories about the Kingdom of God. He is now helping us to see the various dimensions of that kingdom. Now it is about how to enter there. This section reinforces his teaching on humility. Little children are mere infants in the arm, symbols of total dependence 78 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level and insignificance. The disciples would not understand why such insignificant ones would take the time of Jesus away from the important. Luke reverses the way the disciples perceive these realities. The disciples still claimed that some sort of worthiness is necessary to claim the attention of their Master. But it is to such as these unworthy ones that the Kingdom belongs. Only those who receive the kingdom as children can enter it. They accept it as a gift, because they have no sense of their own value. They accept it because they have no resources of their own and so are wholly dependent on God. These are the poor whose is the kingdom of God. To reinforce this point, Jesus applies it to a life situation using a parable.Rich Ruler's salvation (18:18–34) This passage appears in Mark, where he contrasts the rich man with children. He deliberately presents him as an adult who has been faithful since his youth. There is no reason to think of him as a young man. He can question aggressively, while children are passive. Children are poor and he is rich. Luke adds more to Marks presentation. He refers to the rich man as a ruler. This places him in the class of those who are steadfastly against the prophet Jesus. In this way, the request of the rich ruler is not as sincere as that of the rich man of Mark’s Gospel. Hence, while Jesus responded with love in Mark, Luke keeps this man on the scene to let him hear the hard words of the prophet Jesus concerning those who cannot respond to the call of God and who rely on themselves. The rich ruler is not only asked to strip himself of his protection, but to join the ranks of those who must depend entirely on the mercy of God. Certainly, a proud man would not accept that challenge. The greatness of his wealth generates the greatness of his sorrow. The presentation of Jesus leads to the disciple, Peter’s question regarding who can be saved. This is a question in the face of Jesus comparison of a rich and salvation to a camel and the eye of a needle. Luke wants to underscore that what is humanly impossible is possible for God. Hence, the Kingdom is about the power of God. The fact that the disciples have left everything to follow Jesus is the best evidence for the work God is doing. Giving away possessions makes a treasure in heaven. Luke uses a pattern of giving away and getting back more. This idea flows through in the third predication of his passion. In it he shows that the humiliation he will encounter will be nothing compared to the joy of the resurrection on the third day. The disciple must follow the path of the Master, who himself will give up his own life and take it back again when he rises from the dead. The disciples will understand this only after the resurrection. As at now, Luke reminds us of the lack of understanding that still besets the disciples. They were still blind.Healing of the Blind Man (18:35–43) As he brings Jesus to Jericho, and the end of the journey to Jerusalem, he tells two stories which summarise all of Jesus’ ministry and also highlights the opposition that has also been present in that ministry. With this story, Jesus begins openly the claim to be the Messiah. Until now, he has been speaking indirectly and calling on his followers to observe the messianic secret. Indeed, a great crowd of pilgrims going to Jerusalem for the Passover were around him, and many believed that the kingdom of God was to come immediately. They undoubtedly felt he had something to do with the kingdom. The blind man, who must have heard about him before referred to him as The choice of the blind man reminds us that Jesus’ ministry brings sight to the blind and fulfils God’s promise to free those afflicted. Twice Jesus as taught that the blind too need to be invited to share at the table. But he has just shown how the disciples are still blind and lack understanding regarding his passion. He illustrates this now by contrasting the persistence and faith of the blind man and the apostles’ continuous attempt to stop the unworthy from reaching Jesus as they did about the little children. They still manifested something of the Pharisaic influence. Hence, it is only the eyes of faith which opens eyes to see who Jesus really is and to follow him. Unlike the demoniac at Gerasa, the sighted man follows Jesus on the way praising God for what he has done. 79 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level CHAPTER NINETEENJesus and Zacchaeus (19:1–10) This story is unique to Luke. It serves to synthesize dramatically some key themes of discipleship which Jesus has just been presenting since the beginning of his ministry. If it is a question of riches and the marginalization of the poor, Zacchaeus is a wealthy tax-collector. In this connection, Luke addresses the question of the proper use of wealth. If it is a question of being an outcast, he was one hated by the Pharisees and any association between such persons and Jesus angered the Jewish religious leaders, who would even see him in particular as a ‘chief sinner’. He was therefore, kept away from Jesus not merely because of his practices but also due to religious autrocism. Hence, the issue of Jesus eating with sinners comes up again with the appearance of Zacchaeus. Jesus’ friendly attitude and desire to visit him leads him to a total change of heart, another prominent theme in Jesus’ lessons on discipleship. There is the usual murmuring. This time Jesus invites himself. This highlights the theme of the merciful father, the good shepherd who leaves his ninety nine sheep and goes out for the lost one. Zacchaeus, as a person was an attractive person in spite of himself. Like Peter, he was spontaneous, impulsive and given to extravagant statements. Yet there is a deep genuineness in him. Regardless of his position, we catch a glimpse of his humility, as he climbs a tree to see Jesus, but even more as he accepts publicly his guilt and professes repentance. Jesus uses the opportunity to show that he too, even though a tax-collector should not be cast out of society, for he is a son of Abraham. The love Jesus has for us can always awaken new possibilities of love and service, so Zacchaeus expresses his gratitude by making restitution. Restitution is important for those who have extorted, as a sign that they are open to salvation. Parable of the Talents (19:11–27) Those who do economics would refer to this parable as one of the investments. There is another version of this parable found in Matthew, involving only three servants and each receiving different sum of money. Luke’s parable however has some distinguishing elements. Some scholars think we should refer to it as ‘the Lukan kinship parable’ and to refer to that of Matthew as the parable of the talents (Mt 24:14-30). This is because Luke puts the political motif as more primary than that of the possession. He makes the story more about a king being opposed as he goes to get a kingdom. He gets it, after all, and returns to establish rule by getting rid of his rivals, replacing them with those slaves who have been faithful to him by showing they are trustworthy. Hence, the reward for those who are reliable is that they share in the ruling of the kingdom. Notice also that the slave who is not successful is not punish as in the case with the Gospel of Matthew, but only excluded from the ruling power. Another distinguishing element is the relationship between the parable and its long introduction. Luke says Jesus told this parable because they were approaching Jerusalem and they thought that the kingdom of God was going to appear immediately. The expectation of the Jews regarding the kingdom supports the Lucan innovation. Stating that they were about entering Jerusalem brings us to another distinctive element: the context of the parable. Luke could have told this parable anywhere. Matthew places it in the setting of the eschatological discourse (Chapter 24) and fits into the framework of the return of the Son of Man. Luke still fits the parable within the theme of the kingdom of God. He has just presented the kingdom as preached by Jesus and as manifested in the deeds of Christ. Indeed, the term the kingdom of God appears 24 times between Luke 9:1 to Luke 19:11. Notice also that immediately after this parable Jesus himself is proclaimed a King, and will soon be opposed, accused of claiming to be messiah-king, will be told off as messiah-king on the cross by the thief on the left hand side, but from where the thief on the right hand side will beg him for a place in his kingdom and at the last supper he will confer his rule on the 12. Hence, the story is told here to correct the wrong expectations the Jews had regarding the kingdom and the purpose for which Jesus was about to enter the city. Certainly, he was to establish the Kingdom of God. This makes this parable an allegory that tells Christians to wait patiently for the final appearance of Jesus and to deal faithfully with their possessions in the meantime. At the 80 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level return of the King, the enterprising servants are rewarded with more trust. The servant who played it safe out of fear is condemned for his conduct and loses his sum of money to the one with ten. 81 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level PART THREETHE PASSION, TRIAL, DEATH AND RESURRECTION OF CHRIST: JESUS ACCOMPLISHES HIS PASCHAL MYSTERY IN JERUSALEMThis is a climatic section of the Gospel. Everything has been pointing to this section from the time Jesus came to the world. It is about how Jesus offered himself in Jerusalem and the Messiah of the people; they rejected him and put him to death and how God triumphed over their rejection by raising him from death. The Triumphant Entry into Jerusalem (19:28–44) From now on, Luke will follow Mark closely but will still redact. Jesus enters Jerusalem through small villages called Bethphage and Bethany. All the Gospel writers record this event. In them all it marks the public acclamation that Jesus is the Davidic Messiah – Son of David. Earlier he had silenced such claims, but now he defends his disciples and children against the criticisms of the leaders. He now offers himself as Messiah in such a way that demanded either total acceptance or outright rejection. It is deliberate that is why even the way he arranges for the colt to be brought. The fact that the colt has more than one user may suggest their poverty, and the willingness to let it go suggest some previous knowledge of Jesus on the part of the owner. Every feature of the story indicates Jesus intention to declare himself as the King of Israel. The fact that the colt is to be one on which no one has ever sat, makes the event even more significant for Jesus. The entire event calls to mind the ancient prophecy of Zephaniah (9:9). From now own his every act will be a conscious fulfilment of a Divine plan to which the Old Testament bore witness. The fact that the disciples and the crowd caught the messianic significance of this event for Jesus is seen in their reaction. They cast their garments on the road before him, an act of homage normally rendered to a royalty (2Kings 9:13). It even became more obvious when the crowd burst into shouts Blessed be the King who comes in the name of the Lord! A further proof that Jesus planned his entrance into Jerusalem as an act of the Messiah is to be seen in the reply he made to the Pharisees, who asked him to rebuke the disciples. They cautioned him against stirring the Romans through such frenzied outburst, which they regarded also as a religious scandal. Jesus’ reply indicates that he is fully responsible and that the homage was legitimate. The Messiah is here, someone must herald him, people or stones. Lament over Jerusalem (19:41-44) Like Jeremiah, Jesus laments the blindness of Jerusalem to the evidence of God’s plan of salvation for her. Jerusalem rejects the true peace Jesus offers by his entry there. Jesus foresees the days of Jerusalem’s destruction, a thing that occurred in AD 70 by Rome. Failure to accept the messiah therefore, leads to destruction. Temple incident (19:45–20:8) Jesus expels the sellers in the temple. This incident is important because it removes any doubts about Jesus’ intention in the triumphant entry. It was expected that the Messiah will come from the Mount of Olives, it was also thought that he would openly declare himself before the temple. Jesus does this in a dramatic manner, fulfilling Old Testament predictions: Malachi had said the Messiah was to purify the sons of Levi and refine them as gold and silver. (Mal. 3:3) Hence, as Jesus attacked the high priesthood, he is just fulfilling this prophecy. The High priest Annas, wanted to enrich the Temple Treasury, so he established a lively business in the sales of animals for sacrifice, and in the exchange of foreign money into Jewish money, in which the Temple tax had to be paid. This business was carried out in the Court of the Gentiles, the outer court of the Temple. The chief priests made much profit from this. Jesus assumes complete authority over this priestly misuse of the Temple, an authority only the Messiah should will. Jesus has cleared the bad to make room for himself. The Jerusalem temple is indeed supposed to be a place of prayer, but it has no future significance for the Gentiles. Jesus wants it now to become a place where the good news is taught and preached to the people, first by Jesus himself and then by his prophetic successors. 82 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level Indeed, Luke did not fail to add that he was in the temple everyday teaching: being involved in his father’s business. But this direct claim of authority to God’s house will only precipitate his death. Firstly, he was not of the priestly clan, according to the Jews. He had no credentials from the Jerusalem authorities giving him right in God’s house. So either he has rights there as Messiah or he must be destroyed. This second option is chosen by the chief priests and the scribes. They would have acted immediately, were it not for the popularity of Jesus. 83 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level CHAPTER TWENTY The Temple Ministry (20:1-21;38)Conflicts with Leaders: (20:1-19) The prophet has entered the city and taken possession of the Temple. He preaches in it every day and boldly too. All that will follow will centre on the theme of acceptance and rejection of the prophet, Jesus. The religious leaders now make a general challenge of his authority. First, there is an official delegation from the Sanhedrin. Notice that Luke is careful to ensure that he names the three classes: the high priest, the Pharisee and the elders. They want an explanation regarding Jesus’ cleansing of the temple and his assuming a teaching role there. At least two motives lay behind the question: if Jesus were to be arrested, it was necessary to discredit him before the people, If they could induce Jesus to make a verbal claim to be the Messiah, they might condemn him for blasphemy. Jesus makes a counter question, regarding the source of the authority of the prophet in baptizing. What was Jesus trying to establish: 1) Jesus wants to show them that it is a question of spiritual authority, which cannot be settled by mere objective considerations, or authoritarian answers. Jesus was aware the religious leaders did not commit themselves to John’s message regarding the nearness of the Kingdom of God. This failure of theirs will make Jesus’ claim to authority no more convincing that was with John. They got this point from their retort: if we say from heaven, then he would say, why did we not believe him? 2) John’s baptism was a call to repentance, a call that involves moral decisions, and not theological speculations. A moral decision about John was necessary if any issue with Jesus has to be settled. 3) Jesus must have been offering himself to them. The counter question gives room for them to open their hearts to him. Mutual trust is necessary before the mystery of Jesus’ person can be made known. 4) Jesus made an indirect but clear answer to their question. He knew, as well as they knew that John had appeared as a prophet. If he were genuine, then with him the Messianic age had started, because he pointed to Jesus as the One who is to come. Jesus therefore, avoids a verbal claim to messiahship, but indirectly insists he was Messiah. Their efforts to discredit Jesus did not work. Parable of the Tenants Farming (Wicked Husbandmen) or Labourers in the Vineyard (20:9- 19) To reinforce the truth that the rejection of both John and Jesus by the leaders would bring drastic judgement, Jesus tells this parable to the people; the leaders too were listening and recognized themselves in it. The parable shows that Jesus’ wisdom or philosophical pattern surpasses that of the leaders of the people. It is an allegory in which Luke puts side by side for our consideration the response of acceptance of the people and of rejection by the Jewish authorities. As in Mark, the allusion to Israel as God’s vineyard remains valid. The owner of the vineyard is to be understood as God who is faithfully and abundantly gracious, because he continues to send messengers to his beloved people, Israel. The tenants who reject God’s messengers and Son are the religious leaders. The son, who is killed outside the vineyard, is Jesus. The others are those who respond to Jesus’ preaching and that of his disciples and make up reconstituted Israel. The rejected stone which has now become the corner stone is the rejected Jesus, corner stone of God’s building, the reconstituted Israel. The fact that Luke brings in the imagery of the temple helps to lay emphasis on Jesus’ role as he teaches in the Temple. He takes the place of what the temple symbolized.Render unto Caesar (20:20–26) The second challenge to Jesus’ authority is posed by spies from the Sanhedrin. The first group made of the scribes of the Pharisee party and the high priests are said to be waiting on the wings for an opportunity to trap Jesus through spies who would not be as immediately recognizable as the leaders themselves. The leaders now expected Jesus to speak unfavourably about the Empire, and so they would gain grounds to hand him over to Pontius Pilate. They would accuse him later of sedition, claiming he is discouraging the payment of taxes to Caesar regardless of his response here. As a strategy, they sent spies to catch Jesus out in some word they intend to capitalize on. The attack opened with insincere flattery over Jesus’ proclamation of truth without fear or favour. 84 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level Then the spies sought to place Jesus in a dilemma, so that whichever way he went, he would be condemned. If he approves paying the taxes, the people would not favour him, since it would seem he is unconcerned about their burden placed by Rome. If he disapproves, then he would be reported to Caesar as being seditious. Yet their craftiness did not deceive Jesus. Jesus’ reply implied they should not confuse the claims of Mammon with those of God. We must remember that the Zealots and Pharisees equated the coming of the Kingdom with freedom from Rome. Jesus’ reply implies that the coming of the kingdom has nothing to or does not even depend on any political deliverance from Rome. They could offer to God their whole loyalty within the framework of the Roman government. Deliverance was there through a Messiah who was not to battle against Rome, but was to surrender himself to the suffering of the Cross. Once more the trick has failed. The Sadducees and the Resurrection of the dead (20:27–40) Jesus receives a third consecutive challenge, this time from the Sadducees. They appear here in Luke for the only time. (See the introduction regarding their identity and tenets). One thing is clear, they did not believe in the Resurrection and spirits. Like the spies, the Sadducees tried to make Jesus give an answer favourable to their cause. They did this by showing the absurdity of the resurrection, as they tried to show how futile it is to think that the life after death is a continuation of this present life. The used the law of Levirate marriage (Deut 25:5), whereby a brother raises up an heir for his childless dead brother so that the property should not leave the family and the brother’s name would remain. By their question, they expected Jesus to renounce the resurrection or favour polyandry, a thing considered immoral. Jesus’ reply indicates that the question of succession of the husband is a problem for the Sadducees only who do not understand the meaning of the resurrection: Life after death and the current existence are two completely different realities. In heaven people do not take wives. There will be a new kind of relationship that will transcend the human situation, and which will require no procreation. Jesus, instead, makes their question absurd. Jesus shows his God as one who gives and sustains life beyond the grave. The passage also shows Jesus’ authority in interpreting the Law of Moses. It also shows Jesus’ faith and confidence in the life-giving power of the God he proclaims in the Temple. Luke adds to the argument of rising from the dead that of immortality. Jesus’ answer satisfied the scribes and Pharisees. At the end of this it is said, no one dared to question Jesus further.Messiah, the son of David? (20:41–44) This passage of Luke builds on earlier statements about Jesus and his role as Son of David. The Messiah, who is gathering around him reconstituted Israel, challenges the beliefs of the religious leaders from the way he interprets the psalms sung in the Temple worship. In his interpretation he proclaims that he himself is Messiah, son of David and Lord.Denouncing scribes (20:45–47) Jesus continues to denounce the Scribes. He warns his disciples in the presence of all the people against their false piety. Luke signals three aspects of this piety: first, their personal ambition (whereby they manifested outwardly their position of honour, one’s dress, the greetings he receives, the location of his seat at banquets etc.); second Jesus reproves their greed. The Law had ordained special concern for widows and orphans. The lawyers tried to evade this by profiting at the expense of those whose interests they were to protect. Thirdly, he attacked their religious hypocrisy: the prayer they evaluate by their length rather than by their depths, and made to impress men rather than God.85 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level CHAPTER TWENTY ONELesson of the widow's mite (21:1–4) There is a clear connection between this incident and the condemnation of the Scribes that preceded this. The scribes had a piety that paraded for self- gain. The poor widow gave all she had. Luke again is using his device of contrast. Unlike the scribes the widow had too little for display and her offering was in no way prompted by selfishness. Jesus’ praise for the widow’s act was as great as his condemnation of the scribes. This difference is clear because of the way Jesus measured the act. He did so by what was left and not the amount offered. We learn here that true worship of God, demands care of and justice to societies’ neediest and weak members represented by widows. The generosity of the widow is a pre-figuration of the generosity of Jesus. Jesus can also be thought of as decrying the corrupt system of the scribes that caused this widow to give us all she had to preserve a decaying religious institution.The Coming Apocalypse (21:5–38) In this section Luke highlights the consequences for Jerusalem if they fail to listen to God’s prophet. It also helps us to see how God vindicates the rejected Son of Man and Jesus empowering his disciples, who will be rejected due to their allegiance to him. This section has been referred to as Jesus’ discourse about the future. It is a complex passage. Some have divided it into three main parts difficult to disentangle since Luke uses an excursus. In this case Luke begins with talk about the times before the fall of the Temple. (5-11), but interrupts this with consideration of what could be expected even before those events take place (12-29), then he makes a full description of the fall of the city (20-24) and then a glimpse at the days of the Son of Man (25-38). We can see in this division three temporal divisions: a) the times of persecution facing the Christians, b) the times of the destruction of the city and c) the times of the Son of Man. Other commentators think that the section could be split into seven bits: 1) The Introduction(21:5-7), 2) Opening exhortation (21:8-9), 3) Cosmic disaster (21:10-11), 4) events that occur before the end of time (21:12-19); destruction of Jerusalem (21:20-24), 5) cosmic disasters (21:25-33), 6) Concluding exhortation, (21:34-36), 7) inclusion. The passage presents the Lucan image of Jesus and the function of this discourse within the overall narrative. First Jesus appears here as a prophet. In this light, he is not only God’s spokesperson but one who predicts the future. He predicts his own fate and Luke wants to show how this was coming true. Here he predicts the destruction of the temple. In his presentation, Luke shows how the first part of Jesus prophecy has already been fulfilled and therefore the second will also be fulfilled. In this way, he creates confident expectation. Unlike Mark, Luke removes much of the eschatological language. He then focuses on the sufferings of Jesus’ followers in the period before the fall of Jerusalem. The discourse arose out of a remark of the disciples about the “noble stones and offerings” of the Temple. (See description of Temple in the Introduction of this work). Jesus replies by abruptly announcing the total destruction of it all. Notice that when Jeremiah had predicted the destruction of the former temple (Jer.26:6-8), the response of the people was, ‘You shall die’. To say that the Temple will be destroyed is to say Israel would cease being God’s people. The Jews could not conceive themselves in this light. They will be resolved to kill Jesus for blasphemy. Jesus gives no hint regarding time. Those who would want to confine the coming of the Son of Man to time must be regarded as false prophets. Hence, Jesus is calling for an attitude of discernment and patience. Indeed, in the Acts of the Apostles, we read how false messiahs appeared shortly after the dead of Jesus. Before the fall of Jerusalem, the Church will be called up to suffer for the name of Christ, both from Jews and Gentiles. The second book of Luke bears testimony to this. Yet the persecution was to be an opportunity for the Christians to ‘bear testimony’ to their faith. At such moments they will experience the presence of their Lord in a most intimate and helpful way. (14-15). The disciple is encouraged to practice endurance because Jesus’ protecting grace, now a promise will be fulfilled. Regarding the fall of Jerusalem, what should the disciples do? When the siege comes, those in the province of Judaea should escape to the mountains, those in86 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level the environs of Jerusalem should not enter the city, and those in the city should flee. Jerusalem’s doom is the judgement of God. Indeed, in AD 66-70, Jerusalem was attacked. Regarding the coming of the Son of Man and the End times, Luke’s view broadens to include the whole of creation. Jesus will finally come with power to be hailed as Lord by the whole universe. In the manner of the Old Testament theophanies, Luke tries to portray this theme. The Christian before all turbulence must see the hand of God at work, and know that their redemption is gradually drawing near. Jesus is teaching his disciples to live in hope, hope that is accompanied by watchfulness as they wait for the End. The End will come suddenly, like the springing of a trap, and will come upon all, no exception. Over concern for material things will not help the disciple to prepare well, since it will only dull the spiritual senses. One also needs believing prayer, since it keeps the disciple aware of the realities of the unseen world and opens the channels of life to the gifts of God’s strength without which no one would be able to stand in confidence before the Son of Man. Luke concludes by giving a brief summary of Jesus’ last days in Jerusalem. He taught in the Temple day by day, went to Mount of Olives by night, the people remained loyal to him, rising early in the morning to hear him teach, and making it difficult for the leaders to arrest him. 87 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level CHAPTER TWENTY TWOTHE PASSION NARRATIVE PROPERPlot to kill Jesus (22:1–6) All the four Gospels agree that Jesus spent the last hours before his arrest with his disciples. With the mention of the Passover, the passion narrative proper begins. The feasts of the Unleavened Bread and the Passover were originally two separate celebrations – the one an agricultural festival at the beginning of the barley harvest, the other a nomadic feast in which the first-born of the flock was sacrificed. Early in Israelite history, the feasts were joined to commemorate the deliverance from Egypt. The Passover was observed on the first of the seven days of the Unleavened Bread. Luke’s basic source is Mark. Where they differ it is due to his own redaction. Jesus is preparing the way for his farewell discourse at a meal. Jesus prediction of the rejection of the Son of Man by the elders, chief priests and scribes is now coming true. Luke, throughout the passion depicts Jesus going to his death obediently and freely and exhorts disciples to listen to his last words and to imitate his example. His opponents hope for an opportunity to put him to death. Remember that after the temptation in the desert, Luke had remarked that the devil left him to return at some other time. Now is that time, and Satan enters Judas. We must realized that the fact that the Passover was at hand, the religious leaders had some practical difficulty. Galileans who come for this feast were easily aroused to fanatical action which the Romans, aggravated by the extreme Zealots, took very seriously and had on previous occasions put down with the sword. Since the Triumphant Entry into Jerusalem, the Galilean pilgrims had been threatening. Judas emerged as a help to the Sanhedrin. In what did Judas’ betrayal consist? Judas promised to lead to where Jesus was, so that they could arrest him in the absence of the multitude, since the crowd has always been the obstacle. The Last Supper (22:7–23) This supper has been referred to as the Passover meal. This meal has had an obvious and overwhelming significance for the Christian community. It provides foundation for the celebration of the Eucharist or communion. It also provides material that has led to disputes that preoccupied the interpreters of the medieval era and the age of the Reformation. There are also questions regarding the sort of meal Jesus might have been sharing with his disciples, and difference that might make for understanding his last hours. When was the meal celebrated, and what did Jesus think and intend by his words and gestures at this meal. Jesus initiates the meal. He sends Peter and John. This is to show that he is in control of his destiny. While Judas goes forth as an unfaithful disciple, Luke contrasts him with these two faithful companions of Christ. Their signal was to be a man carrying a pot of water. The Synoptic Gospels present the Last Supper as a Passover meal. John’s Gospel however presented it as a meal before the Passover and Jesus’ death occurs at the time of the sacrifice of the Passover lamb. Jesus realizes that the climax of his mission is approaching. His action dramatizes his own self-offering as the new Paschal lamb. He will not eat the Passover supper again until it is fulfilled in the Kingdom. Jesus’ intense desire to eat this meal had two grounds: first the final struggle with evil which lay between him and victory, forbidding as it was, lured him. He could not rest until this dark hour before him comes to pass. Second, inasmuch as what he was going to accomplish was for the new People of God, Jesus wanted to celebrate the Passover with his disciples, who form the nucleus of this new people, in a way which would give it a new and fuller meaning. With this meal, a new Passover, a new deliverance of the new people is about to take place. The sadness of farewell was also the joy of the coming kingdom. This meal anticipates the Eternal banquet of the Messiah. During the meal, Jesus introduced something new: as the bread was broken, so will Jesus’ body be broken for the sake of the disciples. This is what Catholics refer to as the sacrament of the Eucharist. In it, the old Covenant between God and man, which was ratified by the blood of the lamb, is now changed to a New Covenant ratified by the Blood of the Son of God, and this New Covenant can never be broken. The words Jesus uses are referred to as the Words of Institution. In these words, reference is made to the suffering Servant, who is to be the instrument of the New Covenant. It was through this servant that the Covenant would to be renewed and given to the 88 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level nations. (cf Is 42:6; 49:6). Membership in the new People of God through forgiveness of sins is Christ’s gift. Christ intends this meal to be a memorial. The word memorial must be understood in its Hellenistic context of anamnesis: By anamnesis it is not merely an intellection recall, but a kind of remembrance that brings the past to the present and makes the future and the present the same reality. This means Christ must be the same yesterday, today and forever for anyone who partakes in this meal. We remember the mystery of Christ. This remembrance demands participation with him in his death and resurrection, through the action of the Holy Spirit and accompanied by faith. Luke is providing exhortations for his communities, for example, about how to prepare for the Eucharist (22:21-23). Jesus brings up again the deed of Judas. It would seem Jesus is trying to get him renew his loyalty, to abandon his treacherous designs and receive the Lord as a gift. However, since the gift cannot be forced, Judas failed to assimilate neither Jesus’ words nor his acts. Hence, Jesus pronounces a woe. ‘Woe to that person through whom he is being handed over.’ Luke, however, justifies and illustrates the divine plan of history. Jesus’ fate was determined by God and did not come upon Christ unexpectedly. Teachings at Table: (22:24-38) Luke combines the element of the Last Supper with Jesus’ farewell discourse. This makes his account unique. Other evangelists have the meal without the discourse, while John has the entire discourse with just a brief mention of the meal. In his version of the Last Supper, Luke presents Jesus a prophet blessing his disciples in a farewell speech typical of Hellenistic tradition, but also known to the Jews. Jacob, the Patriarch predicted the future for his sons as he died (Gen 49:1-28). Moses delivered a farewell speech before his own death. (Deut 31). What we find here is how Luke envisages the relationship between Jesus and his closest followers. The dimensions of this relationship are determined by the character of Jesus’ ministry. By means of this farewell discourse, the issue of transitions in authority and missionary praxis after Jesus the founder, has died is raised up here. Luke says a dispute broke out among the disciples. This makes us equate them with the Pharisees and scribes who usually brought up controversies at table. Luke wants to conclude his imagery on servants. Greatness among those who do not know Christ consists in ruling and in the honour of bearing the title of ‘benefactor of the human race’, through some noted deed. In Jesus’ kingdom, however, true greatness lies in humble service without thought of honour or reward. There should be, therefore, no wrangling over status. They are neither to dominate nor regard themselves as benefactors. Jesus, at table reinforces this teaching himself, in the washing of the feet. He had spoken before about the Master waiting on the servant found at his job. He also taught that he is among the disciples as one who serves. Now he concretizes his teaching. This passage is relevant today because it calls on leaders to adopt Jesus’ lifestyle of leadership, to practice repentance and to make it an obligation to recognize that their talents as leaders are gifts from God their great benefactor and Creator, and that these talents and gifts were given them to relief the lot of those who are oppressed and marginalized. In a positive note, the disciples have stood by Jesus in all the opposition he had on the way to Jerusalem. It is this standing by Jesus that leads to the condition of blessedness, not cleverness, learning, accomplishment. Jesus complements his apostles and offers them the kingdom. They will sit on the throne to judge the tribes of Israel. But these chosen men are going to share the fate of Jesus and be subjected to testing, even greater than they have already endured. The power of Satan, the authority of darkness is at work in the arrest of the Messiah. These disciples who now share Jesus’ table will be violently sifted by these events. Judas had fallen already. Peter, despite his protestation will deny Jesus. Thanks to God he will turn back. Nevertheless, the apostles will never again be able to rely on the gift of hospitality to supply their needs: they are entering with the Messiah into a period of danger that will not soon end, and their use of possessions must reflect these changed circumstances. (22:35-36) Finally, Luke shows the disciples (and the readers too) that all of these things are in fulfilment of prophecy (22:37). This summarizes Luke’s view concerning Jesus: Jesus is the fulfilment of the Law and the Prophets. 89 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level The Arrest (22:39–53) Luke begins by showing us Jesus at prayer at the Garden of Gethsemane. This shows how internally disposed Jesus was to obey the will of his Father, as he prepares to offer himself for his followers. The moment of his arrest leads us to understand how brutal the machinery of death can be, how poisonous betrayal and deception are. The Messiah has to suffer this. Tradition holds very strongly that Jesus went through a powerful testing of his faith and obedience before his death. We find this in the letter to the Hebrews (5:7-8), in the Gospel of John (12:27). Mark and Matthew show us a Jesus rapt in fear and sorrow, asking his disciples to wait for him while he prays, begging his Father repeatedly to let the cup pass from him. There is emotional turmoil. Luke however, attempts to rework the tradition. He places the focus on Jesus and not on the disciples. He omits the request that they watch with him, the repeated visits and exhortations. Our attention is fixed on Jesus. He also shapes Jesus’ image. He removes from Him the need for companionship and the terrible fear and grief emphasized by Mark. Why had Luke to do this? The Gentiles would understand all these as signs of vice, weakness and not of virtue. Whereas, Luke is concerned to show that Jesus is not only prophet but a wise prophet. Hence, Luke shifts the emotion of sorrow from Jesus to his disciples. They fail to pray as he had told them, because their sorrow (fear, anxiety, and cowardice) has weighed them down with sleep. In contrast, Luke presents Jesus as the spiritual athlete. He enters the realm of prayer before God, bringing his mind and will into line with that of the Father, releasing his deep desire to live and avoid suffering, and accepting what has been determined for him. The angel strengthening him is like a coach, urging on his eager prayer. The sweat falling to the ground in drops so great, and which foreshadows the drops of blood he would shed on the cross tells us that it is an anticipation of a still harder victory. This scene of the arrest shows us the wise man whose acceptance of God’s will stands unshakeable in the midst of turmoil. Everything around Jesus is chaotic and out of control. The leaders come as a mob with weapons; Judas looks forward to kiss Jesus; the disciples brandish the sword and slash the ear of the high priest’s slave. Jesus stands as a still centre. Jesus in a quiet and humourous manner reveals how the Jewish leaders have lost their sense of dignity and credibility before the people as he asks ‘you have come out as for a bandit.’ Why would they not take him any time during the day? Why do they need such weapons and the cover of the night? Similarly, Jesus faces Judas’ kiss with an ironical question: ‘do you betray the Son of Man with a kiss?’ That Jesus is not lacking in power is demonstrated not only by his self-control, but also by his control of his disciples: at his word, they cease resistance. It is also demonstrated by his action of healing of the slave’s ear. What Jesus was, from the beginning, he remains to the end. Finally, Jesus’ power is demonstrated by his quiet recognition that this power to heal is useless in a situation dominated by deception, betrayal and violence: this is your hour and the power of darkness. The Son of Man requires a greater sacrifice. Peter’s Denial: (22:54-62) Luke has changed the order of events because he treats the apostles gently. Mark and Matthew are rather hard on Peter. Luke does not make it vividly intertwined with the trial of Jesus. The impact, however, is still considerable. We come to know that Peter’s boasting at table was empty. (22:33), and the fact that they slept and never prayed at Gethsemane now turns out to be cowardice. But once again, we perceive Jesus as a prophet, whose predictions unfailingly come true. Luke ends the story differently too. He makes Peter’s restoration predicted in 22:32, to start taking effect immediately after the fall. He went outside and wept with bitter tears after Jesus had turned towards him and looked intently at him. The trial of Jesus before the High Priest: Introduction (22:63–71) The first trial of Jesus is before the Sanhedrin. This takes place at the house of the chief priest. As with the whole passion there are questions the reader has to face related to historicity. What really happened? Who is really responsible for the death of Jesus? The Gospels differ in important details, but more serious is that our sources concerning the central issues of the Sanhedrin procedures, especially regarding the death penalty are sparse and ambiguous, since much debate still exist. Some scholars think the Sanhedrin could pass a death penalty for blasphemy which was 90 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level stoning. If Jesus was executed by the Roman penalty of crucifixion, therefore, he must have been killed for a specifically political crime, not a religious one. By this, the Jewish court would be blameless and the Romans would be responsible. Other scholars think the synoptic Gospels place the trial on a day the Jews themselves would never have carried it out. Hence, they think these Gospel writers just looked for an excuse to blame the Jews. Furthermore, scholars argue that the rules of the Sanhedrin demanded that witnesses agree, and that contradictory evidence is invalid, implying that the synoptic accounts that tried Jesus in the absence of witnesses is fictional. If we judge the Gospel writers only by these sources, then it would be unfair. Firstly people do not always follow their own rules, secondly, from the time these rules were made until now that they are compiled as Rabbinic codes more than 150 years had gone by. We must not forget, however, that Luke had eyewitnesses account before him as well as his own imagination. His passion version then includes the denial of Peter, the mocking of Jesus, the questions put by the council. Our attention should be on the meaning of the narratives, not necessarily the historical facts. Direct Rejection of Jesus (22:63-65) Jesus is more directly rejected. Even here Luke changes the order of events. Mark and Matthew put the mocking after the condemnation of Jesus. Luke puts it first, not for historical reasons but to show how the leadership of the people fulfil what was said about them throughout the narrative: people who reject and mock Jesus, rejecting him as a prophet. For the reader, it becomes clear that it is the leaders who are blind about Jesus being the prophet. Trial of Jesus before Sanhedrin (22:66-71) This scene shows us Jesus being examined by the Sanhedrin. Luke’s version is different again from Mark and Matthew in that it omits certain aspects in the other synoptic gospels. He has no succession of false witnesses, e.g. with their charge about the destruction of the Temple. Luke has no interest in the garment of the Chief priest, or in the cry of blasphemy or the statement that Jesus deserves death. How then does he shape the event? First, he involves the whole Sanhedrin in the questioning: ‘they ask Jesus’. The idea is that the rejection of the prophet is not the work of the whole people; they are sympathetic to him, but neither is it the work of the chief priest alone. The leadership that has all along opposed Jesus are involved in this questioning. Second, Luke separates the questions concerning Jesus’ sonship and messiahship as in the other gospels. Jesus does not assent to the title Messiah, yet this is the claim they would use before Pilate, to show that they were deceptive. Thirdly, Luke makes Jesus response over the claim of being Son of God come forth not in the terms of the parousia but in the terms of the resurrection. The leaders will not see Jesus, but the apostles will see him seated at the right hand of God. 91 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level CHAPTER TWENTY THREEThroughout this section Luke is going to emphasize the loving fidelity Jesus manifests to God, the innocent manner in which he suffered even though he was righteous, and the mercy that Jesus manifested even as he is dying, towards those who put him to death. Before Pilate (23:1–5) The righteous one is handed over for crucifixion here. The innocence of Jesus is a refrain that keeps coming up here. Jesus is the wronged one, the righteous one. Jesus, without any constraints, journeys to his Father freely and obediently. What he predicted about his passion is being fulfilled. Pontius Pilate had been the procurator or Roman governor of Judaea for about five years. He was in Jerusalem because of the large gathering of Jews for the feast of the Passover. Pilate has the authority to pronounce a death sentence by crucifixion on a criminal. (See introduction regarding Sanhedrin and the Political authority of Jesus’ time). The charges against Jesus are not real. They are made up. In truth, Jesus never stopped people from paying taxes to Caesar. If it were a question of kingship, his was not of this world; it was not a political one. We saw already that it consists of serving. Ironically, Luke will stress that it is the Jews themselves who not only approved of uprisings, but even incite riots. When Pilate declared that he found no crime against Jesus, he proclaimed acquittal for Jesus. The mention of Galilee however, gives Pilate the opportunity to divert the case to the tetrarch of Galilee, Herod Antipas.Before Herod Antipas (23:6–12) This addition of Herod Antipas’ hearing is peculiar to Luke. Luke portrays the Jewish leaders in a unique manner. Earlier, Herod played a role in the narrative that foreshadowed this event. (Cf 9:7-9, 13:31-33). Herod happened to have been in Jerusalem for the same reason as Pontius Pilate. Jesus does not respond to the request for a sign or to the ill-motivated questions of Herod. Herod’s mocking treatment of Jesus ironically heals an enmity between Pontius Pilate and Herod. Hence, Jesus continues his prophetic works even within the circles of political authority. The death Sentence: Jesus again before Pilate (23:13-22) The second scene before Pilate is a three-fold build-up of Jesus’ innocence, the crowd’s hostility, and Pilate’s weakness. He had been accused before of sedition, blasphemy, treason, subversion. Pilate tries various routes to convince the people of Jesus’ innocence in vain. He proposes to have Jesus scourged and released thereafter. Pilate meant to chastise Jesus, that is, not to punish him for any guilt, but to warn him to be more cautious, and he hoped this would satisfy the Jews and secures Jesus’ release. Pilate failed to realize that the grievance against Jesus was fixed. He is not strong, or free enough to do what he knows is right. The people call for the release of Barabbas, the prisoner, under terms of what must have been a local custom authorized by the Judean procurators. Barabbas was a revolutionary, probably a leader of the underground Zealot movement against Rome and murderer who really would have constituted a danger to the stability of Roman rule. By placing Barabbas and Jesus side by side, Luke is out to contrast and to highlight the prophetic image of Jesus Christ, whose passion fulfils the prophecy of Isaiah, ‘he was reckoned with transgressors’ (Is 53:12). This is ironical, yet for Jesus’ sake again, prisoners are liberated. For the first time, the term crucifixion comes in. The Jews were to be contented with nothing but crucifixion. Pilate makes a final attempt to release Jesus, suggesting once more that he would scourge him and release him, but the mob hauled and demanded that prevalence of crucifixion, to which Pilate yielded. Crucifixion (23:26–49) Jesus is placed in the charge of a Roman centurion, who along with guards and two other condemned prisoners, led Jesus away. There were also sympathetic women, the Jewish rulers and a crowd of on-lookers. Where were the disciples? Their absence again makes Jesus’ prophecy come true. At table he had told them how they will all desert him. It was a Roman custom for one condemned by crucifixion to carry his own cross to the place of execution. John tells us that Jesus 92 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level began to carry his. Luke says Simon of Cyrene was compelled to take over the task. The reasons for this are not clear, but there are hints that Jesus had had little sleep during the entire week (21:37; 22:39). What about the all night trial and mistreatment, including the scourging as recorded by John. When Jesus was about entering Jerusalem, he called on the city dwellers to repent. Now, as he is about facing his crucifixion he does the same. Indeed, it was customary that pious women bewailed the lot of one condemned to die. Jesus did not reject their act of sympathy, but told them that weeping was much more appropriate for the judgement that would come on Jerusalem as punishment for what they are about to do. This ends up to be a stern warning calling for repentance of their rejection of the innocent and righteous one. Indeed he leaves them a proverb to the effect that dry wood burns better than green, hence, if the innocent Messiah, the life-giving Jesus has to suffer thus, what would it be like when the suffering of dry and guilty Jerusalem comes? Jesus’ Lordship continues to shine out, as this turned out to be a prophetic statement regarding the fall of Jerusalem in AD 70. Luke softens Roman involvement, and highlights the prominent role of the leaders, chief priests, scribes and the people. They lead Jesus away. The place of execution was called ‘The Skull’, and it was outside the city though not far from it. Notice that as a Gospel to the Gentiles, Luke avoids the Aramaic name Golgotha, a name that describes the rock formation at Calvary. Victims were crucified naked, exposed to the scorching oriental sun and burning wind. Death came slowly and painfully, and the bodies were taken down twenty four hours or more. Jesus is mocked by the Roman soldiers who offer him vinegar to quench his thirst, and ironically called him ‘King of the Jews’. Indeed, Pilate’s slate bore this. Jesus is crucified between two criminals. One of them, in the manner of the Zealots challenges Jesus to perform an act of liberation against Rome, if he were the Messiah: an irony though! The other had begun to sense something deeper in Jesus. His own condemnation has shown him the falseness of his Messianic hopes. He sees that Jesus is a true King and can bestow pardon and mercy. He initiates positive responses to Jesus. Luke is going to present a series of these responses. They were receiving a due reward for their crimes. The theme of Jesus’ innocence is highlighted. He sees Jesus as the one through whom the Kingdom will come. Jesus offers him entrance into Paradise, the place where righteous people go for eternity. This offer is a sign that Jesus will experience God’s victory over death. Luke is making a profession of faith even though through the lips of those mocking Jesus. Jesus’ death is salvific and it has meaning for the present. His offer of forgiveness to the thief images a return to the original creation – Paradise. His cross is now the new tree of life and the fruit from it brings salvation, it reopens the gates of Paradise to sinful Adam. For three hours, Jesus was silent. The priests had gone back to their duties in Jerusalem, the crowd moved about, curious and uncomprehending. The guards kept vigil. The crushed Jesus hung in agony too deep for words and too profound for human understanding. What was actually going on remains difficult to be described. Luke records even nature’s testimony: The sun was enveloped in darkness, and an earthquake shook the Temple, tearing the curtain that hung before the Holy of Holies in two. In Jesus, all have access to the holy of holiest not only the priests. Before dying Jesus commends to God his spirit. Jesus is at prayer again before accomplishing a significant act. The prayer is base on another psalm of the innocently suffering righteous one. Ps 32:5. With profound faith in his gracious Father, who raises the dead to life, Jesus concludes his life of obedience to God’s will. He has drunk the cup God had mixed for him. Jesus died much sooner than was usual with those crucified not from physical exhaustion, for his last words were a ‘loud cry’ indicating he was still full of vitality, but from spiritual agony: his battle with sin. Luke continues to report positive responses. This time it is the centurion, indicating Luke’s positive view of soldiers, and much more of a Gentile. Jesus is being universally acclaimed as Lord. The centurion sees the inner significance of Jesus’ forgiveness of his enemies, his fidelity to God during temptation, his mercy to a repentant criminal, and he ends up praising God and declares the innocence and righteousness of Jesus. By being faithful to Jesus God has shown that Jesus is his Son. By his obedience, Jesus is shown as God’s Son. The disciples too who did not flee see the meaning of his death.93 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level Joseph of Arimathea and the Kingly Burial of Jesus (23:50–56) Joseph of Arimathea and the faithful women provide additional positive responses to God’s revelation in Jesus crucified. The decision of the religious leaders against Jesus was not unanimous. Jesus is wrapped with a linen, symbol of immortality. He is placed in no common grave, but in one no one has used before. Jesus’ burial is befitting for one who is Messiah, king of the Jews.94 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level CHAPTER TWENTY FOURTHE RESURRECTION AND POST RESURRECTION APPEARANCESThe empty tomb incident opens us to the resurrection of Jesus. It is the starting point of the Christian faith. It is the central fact of the Gospel. Without it, the faith of Christians will be futile and humanity will still be living in sin. Without it, Jesus would have been just another unfortunate victim of unbridled human error, a standing testimony that man always destroys the best he knows. The resurrection signals the victory of what would otherwise have been a horrible tragedy. God has triumph over evil. Virtue is rewarded. The worst has yielded to the best. God has the final say and it is always good. It is difficult to harmonize the resurrection accounts of the four gospels. Even the synoptic gospels that seem to have a common source on some of the episodes have striking differences. However, the agreements far outweigh the differences. All the stories agree that Jesus is alive and active in his Church, and that in him death has been vanquished. In the light of this truth, it does not matter the number of angels seen or whether the appearances were in Galilee or Judaea or the exact order in which the post-resurrection appearances occurred. Christ lives, and this is the unshakeable conviction of all. All agree too in the fact that the tomb was empty. This was resurrection, not immortality. Jesus was raised in body and spirit. All Gospels also agree in omitting any attempt to describe the resurrection. No one witnessed it. All accounts also confirm the mysterious nature of Jesus’ resurrected body. It was not mere material body of flesh like that of the resuscitated daughter of Jarius, for she was still subject to the laws of life as we know it. Jesus’ body was no more subject to these natural laws. It appeared and disappeared, entered and left a room with doors still locked etc. On the other hand, it was not a mere apparition, a materialization of a spirit whose body lay still in the grave (ghost), but he appeared with flesh and bones and took in food. Another common element in all the resurrection stories was the fact that a commission was involved. They were not emotional experiences, spiritually uplifting but empty of content. They were moments when the Lord of life who had risen victorious over death, called these men to bear witness to his victory, and to give their lives to making the good news known to the whole world. The post resurrection appearances were unique phenomena taking place between the resurrection and the ascension, not open to subsequent generations of Christians. Our faith must not be through another direct appearance but through the testimony of the apostles and those who were witnesses to these events. Luke’s resurrection and ascension stories however, have some characteristic features. 1) Luke continues his geographical concentration in Jerusalem. There are no appearances, or promises of appearances in Galilee. He emphasizes this concentration on Jerusalem, so much so that in the last Gospel appearance, Jesus commands the apostles to stay in the city. 2) Luke’s accounts combine the mysterious with the matter-of-fact or the obvious: Jesus can appear as an ordinary traveller on the road and not be recognized. On the other hand, he is not a wraith or ghost: he eats bread and grilled fish, and declares that he has ‘flesh and bones’. 3) Luke accounts all involve the theme of prophecy/fulfilment: the words of Jesus prophesying his passion and death are explicitly recalled in the light of the events; the words of Torah as well are shown to have predicted these things. 4) The appearance accounts look forward to Luke’s second letter to Theophilus: the Acts, and to the ministry of the apostles. 5) In all of these, we find Luke showing a community in the process of formation from eyewitnesses to ministers of the word. This community begins to read back and understand the meaning of the Jesus story before his death, they need only to be empowered by Jesus’ own Spirit before beginning to proclaim it themselves. Empty tomb (24:1–12) Luke’s version of the empty tomb shares with Mark and Matthew. The women, who went to the tomb early in the morning of the first day of the week, were those who followed Jesus from Galilee, and had seen him buried. They presumably came with their spices to embalm Jesus’ body. They found that the stone was rolled away, and the body was nowhere to be found. The women are eyewitnesses. They reported everything they have experienced. The problem of disbelief is not that 95 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level of the women, but the men, ‘the Eleven and the rest’. Even when Peter confirms the facts of the case, he does not yet believe, but only walks back full of wonder. To secure his geographical interest, Luke removes any reference to appearance in Galilee and instead has the women remember what Jesus had said in Galilee. As a result, he not only invites us to remember the course of Jesus’ ministry, but also once more certifies the role of these women: they remembered because they had been there. The words they are to remember is the prophecy Jesus had made of his passion and resurrection. The women have come to belief and to a proper understanding of the event of the resurrection. This vision ties with Luke’s regard for women. The Emmaus Experience (24:13–35) In this episode we experience Luke’s ability to tell a story. His rich use of detail is evident. He gives the name of the village, the distance from the city, the name of the disciple, the gesture of hospitality. He makes the story full of emotions which he sketches in a very subtle manner: the men stopping in sorrow, their report that the women had stunned them, their recollection of how their hearts had burned while in conversation with Jesus. The themes of faith as seeing and hospitality stand out. This story serves several literary and religious functions: 1) It provides an easy transition from the empty-tomb account to the appearance of Jesus to the full gathering of his disciples. It is like a bridge, and emotionally satisfying one, between the shock of the death and absence of Jesus in the tomb and the shock of the full presence (his appearing to the community). This is evident from the way the characters speak and the actions that accompany their words. 2) This section shows us one of Luke’s narrative skills. He used a matter of fact story, simple as it is and makes it into a complex narrative. 3) He further connects this complex narrative to his thematic interest. As people tell the story to each other, they also interpret it. Jesus’ speech to the disciples on the road to Emmaus interprets the resurrection. Hence, Luke shows us in this section the process by which the early community learnt to understand the significance of the events they witnessed. The resurrection sheds new light on Jesus’ death, on Jesus’ words, and on the Scriptures. The Risen Christ opens the eyes of the disciples and they could see the texts truly, and see Jesus truly too. Behind this is the theme of seeking and finding meaning that surrounds the event of Jesus last days. The experience of the Risen Lord must be shared. The process of telling and interpreting the great events of the resurrection is shown as bearing fruits in a community of believers. The two disciples seem to have abandoned the way since Jesus did not meet their expectations. Their infidelity is contrasted with the fidelity of the women (23:49-24:12). The incident highlights Lucan theme of journey which was dominated by the theme of discipleship. Jesus wants to school these disciples and he does so through a journey language. In it, Jesus reconciles these two wayfarers, forgives them, enlightens them and makes them missionaries. The theme of seeing stands out in the way Luke gradually shows how the disciples’ eyes fully opened only after they had shown hospitality to a stranger. Hence, Luke intends to show that disciples who entertain strangers will have their eyes opened. Jesus’ Lordship is not manifested in acts of war, vengeance, or dreadful and mighty signs, but through a cross expressed in a meal – an act of hospitality, of peace, of brotherhood and sisterhood. All along Luke has used food to show that God’s kingdom has come through Jesus’ eating with others, especially the outcasts. Jesus had said he would not share food with his disciples until he reaches the Kingdom. If he does this now, it implies the kingdom has already come. Now his table companions are the disciples who have strayed, whom he now forgives and sends back to Jerusalem to the fold. Through their concern to provide hospitality to a stranger, Jesus transforms the disciples’ sadness, slowness, foolishness into joy, insight and joyful recommitment to Jesus’ way.Jesus Appears to the Community (24:36-49) This section highlights themes of peace, table fellowship, God’s promises fulfilled in Jesus, forgiveness of sins, Jerusalem, witness, the Holy Spirit, Jesus’ completion of his journey to God,96 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level the Temple. Luke inter-mingles these entire themes. The posture of the disciples is described by Luke here: they worship Jesus. The vast majority of this material is Lucan. Jesus makes himself known to the whole group including the Eleven and others who were with them. This scene reminds us of the way in which Jesus will be present to the community. Although Luke makes Jesus eat and the disciples tough his hands, he does not fail to contrast the present mode of Jesus’ presence to what it was before the resurrection. On the way to Emmaus his presence was mysterious and indirect. He could appear as a stranger without being recognized. The appearance to the community emphasizes the other side: he is not a ghost, but a real person. Yet, even with this reassurance from Jesus himself, and the bit of fish taken in their presence, it is obvious that Luke is not portraying a resuscitation bur a resurrection. The disciples are filled with a mixture of terror and joy. Jesus way of talking has changed. He is now the commanding Lord. They worship him in response. Luke teaches the community that from now on, Jesus’ presence will be at such fellowship meals where they break bread as Jesus had taught them, read the scriptures that speak of him and remember his word. The purpose of Jesus’ post-Resurrection appearances was not only to lead the disciples to faith in the resurrection, but to commission them as witnesses to it. His victory over sin and death must be heralded to the ends of the earth. To be adequately equipped for this mission, however, they must be able to relate what happened to the Scriptures. Jesus’ resurrection was not isolated event. It was no accident of history, taking place without relation to what had gone before and what was to come after. It was rather the culminating point to which all history has been moving. The resurrection therefore, gave meaning to the life and teachings of the Jesus of history. It was the climax of Old Testament revelation, the fulfilment of the Law, the Prophets and the Writings. Scripture had witnessed not only to the passion and death of Christ, but also to the fact that the repentance and forgiveness of sins in the name of Jesus be preached to the ends of the earth. This was the task of the Church, to bear witness in such a way that men will be led to repentance and have their sins forgiven. Jesus was only renewing and deepening the commission he gave to the disciples when he sent them out earlier. The commission now included the announcement that he who brought the Kingdom was the crucified and Risen One. And this was to be done through the Scriptures. The power to make their witness effective was the Father’s promise of the Holy Spirit. The Holy Spirit enables us to understand the Scriptures and empowers our witness. The Scripture, the Church and the Holy Spirit form, as it were, God’s weapon of impact on the world.Ascension of Jesus (24:50–53) The Ascension reported here, serves as a literary technique that would connect the first volume of Luke’s work, the Gospel, to the second one, the Acts. In the Acts, Luke indicated that the Post-resurrection appearances lasted for forty days. This implies the Ascension did not take place immediately, as the account in Luke seems to suggest. In telling Christ’s departure, the amazing thing, however, is that after it, the disciples returned to Jerusalem with great joy and were continually blessing God. This is quite in contrast to the sorrow and disillusionment of his former departure at the time of his death. Notice even, that the departure took place while he blessed them. His parting act of blessing was a continuous one. They were now to live under this constant benediction. Furthermore, his Ascension was the crowning act of his victory. He went to sit at God’s right hand: a position Ephesians describes as far above all rule and authority and power and dominion, and above every name that is named, not only in this age, but also in the world to come. The Letter to the Romans adds, ‘in order that he might be Lord, not only of the dead but also of the living’. This was the enthronement of Jesus and the disciples rejoiced. Luke’s Gospel closes as it opened, in the Temple at Jerusalem. The way is prepared for the Book of the Acts which begins its story in Jerusalem, spread through Judaea and Samaria and indeed, to the ends of the earth. 97 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level REVISION QUESTIONS INTRODUCTION 1. From internal evidence support the contention that Luke, a companion of Paul wrote the Third Gospel. 2. “A Gospel by a Gentile to the Gentiles” To what extent does this apply to the Gospel of Luke? 3. “Although Luke’s style is epistolary he certainly has a wider audience than Theophilus” Discuss. 4. Luke declares that he wants to put down history. Why then is his work called Good News? 5. Would you consider Luke more of a Theologian than a historian? 6. Discuss how Luke’s structure, style and Language reveal his purpose. 7. Examine the authorship, theme and style of the Gospel of Luke. 8. Examine the circumstances which led to the writing of the Gospel of Luke. 9. Assess the importance of the Gospel of Luke in the history of the early Church. 10. Discuss the authorship and purpose of Luke’s Gospel. 11. Critically examine the purpose of Luke’s Gospel and show its relevance to our society today. With reference to any two incidents, clearly identify the characteristic style of Luke. 12. “The Messianic Kingdom was at the centre of Jewish national hope” What were the Jewish expectations of the Kingdom of God and the Messiah? By the end of the Gospel of Luke were these expectations met? 13. What internal evidence in Luke’s Gospel supports the fact that the gentile world was his destination? 14. Discuss any two characteristics of Luke’s Gospel illustrating your answer with references from the Gospel itself. 15. “One of the first universalists” In what ways would you justify this description of Luke’s Gospel? 16. “A Gospel for the marginalized.” To what extent does this describe the Third Gospel? 17. “The Gospel of Luke is a Gospel of prayer and the Holy Spirit.” Illustrate and indicate the significance of this statement. 18. “The Lucan Jesus is sympathetic to non-Jews.” Explain 19. Show how Luke presents Jesus as a universal saviour. 20. “In the Third Gospel, women are favoured.” To what extent is this tenable? 21. Illustrate from the teachings of Jesus how his heart beats for those whom society treats as outcasts. 22. “Gentiles are also open to salvation” Discuss how Luke makes this assertion a concern. 23. “Luke favours the poor yet he does not intend to despise the rich.” Discuss. 24. Discuss the synoptic problem with special attention on Luke’s Gospel. 25. State and comment on the so-called synoptic Problem. Attempt a solution to it. 26. State the Synoptic problem. How successful have Bible scholars been in their quest for a solution? 27. Comment on the religious institutions at the time of Jesus. 28. Write a critical essay on the Jerusalem temple showing its importance to the Gospel story. 29. “Though Jesus was a Pharisee, he showed no bias for or against this sect.” Do you agree? 30. Assess the controversies Jesus had with the Pharisees and the Scribes in the Gospel of Luke. 31. The Sadducees contested the resurrection of the body. What is the significance of their encounter with Christ over this issue in Luke’s Gospel? 32. Examine the relationship Jesus had with the Political leaders of his time. 33. Discuss the view that the traditional Christian view of the Pharisees lacks any basis. 34. Evaluate Luke’s use of the Temple in the Third Gospel. 35. To what extent could the Sanhedrin be held responsible for the death of Christ?CHAPTERS ONE AND TWO: INFANCY NARRATIVES1. “The infancy narrative draws a parallel between John the Baptist and Jesus, but only so as to show the superiority of Jesus over John.” Discuss 2. “Although the Infancy narrative consists of only two chapters in Luke, it has an importance far more than its length would suggest.” Discuss 3. Discuss the view that the Gospel of Luke is the first attempt at a biography of Jesus. 4. Discuss the information which may be gained about the author, his aims and his methods from the Prologue of St. Luke's Gospel. 5. Discuss the messianic expectations which are expressed in the Magnificat and the Benedictus. To what extent do these express the views of the author? 6. How does the Infancy Narrative show that both John the Baptist and Jesus are fulfilment of the Old Testament prophecies? 7. Examine the distinctive characteristics of the infancy narrative in Luke. 8. Discuss the prophecy of Simeon in the light of the ‘wonder motif’ and the role of Mary. 9. With reference to the infancy narratives, analyse any four events that were in conformity with Jewish law. 10. a) Outline the main religious features contained in the birth and infancy narratives in Luke's gospel. 98 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level b) How may the knowledge of the religious and cultural background of the period contribute to an understanding of these features? 11. a) What historical evidence does Luke give for the birth of Jesus? b) How does he show that Mary remained a virgin in giving birth? 12. How does the Prologue of Luke’s Gospel reflect the author’s aims and style? 13. Discuss the significance of the Annunciation of John the Baptist. 14. How significant is the birth of Christ to the history of our salvation? 15. “Although Luke records the infancy similar events regarding the birth of Jesus and John the Baptist, he is careful in making proper distinction between the two of them.” Discuss this statement with particular reference to the first two chapters of Luke’s Gospel.CHAPTER THREE: GALILEAN MINISTRY1. Discuss the role of John the Baptist in the life of Jesus. 2. Consider the role of John the Baptist as a precursor and a harbinger. 3. a) Briefly describe the political and religious situation in Palestine at the time of John the Baptist b) Explain his preaching on repentance. 4. Establish the relationship between the ministry of John and that of Jesus. 5. Examine the significance of the baptism of Jesus. 6. a) Why did the Holy Spirit descend upon Jesus at the time of His baptism? b) How was this in accordance with the Old Testament tradition? 7. ‘In the Gospel of Luke, one of the major themes is the reversal of status’. How do you justify this statement?CHAPTER FOUR . a) What is the significance of the temptations of Jesus at the beginning of his public ministry? b) How important is Jesus’ example for Christians today? . “In the Gospel of St. Luke one of the main themes is the reversal of status” How would you justify this statement? . “Luke’s teaching on wealth and poverty is complicated.” What is this teaching and how can one strike the mean? . “The Spirit of the Lord is upon me” (Luke 4:18). Consider, and assess the ministry of Jesus in the light of this statement. . a. Briefly describe the political and religious situation in Palestine at the time of John the Baptist b. Explain his preaching on repentance . a) Why did the Holy Spirit descend upon Jesus at the time of John the Baptist? b) How was this in accordance with the Old Testament Tradition? 7. a) What is a miracle? b) What is the significance of the miraculous haul of fishes? 8. “The ‘twin themes’ in the story of thee Baptism of Jesus are take up in the story of His temptation.” Discuss. 9. a) Examine the implications of the temptations of Jesus for His subsequent ministry. b) In what ways can Christians apply the temptation experience of Jesus in their personal lives?CHAPTER FIVE1. a) Why did Jesus Christ perform miracles? b) Assess three miracles performed on the Sabbath 2. What problems surround our understanding and interpretation of the miracles of Jesus? Illustrate your answer with reference to at least three miracles. 3. a) Attempt a classification of the miracles of Jesus in Luke? b) Discuss the significance of miracles in Jesus’ ministry. 4. Discuss the theme of Discipleship as it occurs in Luke’s Gospel. 5. “Jesus called men who were very human to constitute his disciples.” Critically assess this assertion. CHAPTER SIX1. Examine the areas of conflict Jesus had with the Pharisees 2. Examine the preaching of Jesus in the Synagogue in Nazareth and the consequent reaction of the people. 3. “The Spirit of the Lord is upon me” Consider and assess the ministry of Jesus in the light of this statement. 4. Discuss the messianic expectations of the Jews and the Messianic proclamation of Christ in the synagogue of Nazareth at the start of his ministry. 5. “The text read by Christ in the Synagogue of Nazareth is a summary of Lucan themes.” Justify. 6. Jesus’ parables reinforce his teachings. With particular reference to at least four parables, attempt to clarify this statement.99 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level 7. The Kingdom of God is central to most of the Parables. Discuss how Luke introduces this theme in his presentation of the Parables of Jesus. 8. Discuss the nature and characteristics of parables found only in Luke’s Gospel. What reasons can you give for their inclusion in the Gospel? CHAPTER SEVEN1. In the Gospel of Luke, sinners are given much attention. In what context does this occur? 2. Discuss the Lucan presentation of miracles in the Third Gospel 3. ‘Jesus’ healing of non-Jews indicates his universal mission as a saviour’. Discuss. 4. Discuss the significance of the healing of the paralytic to the overall purpose of Luke. 5. “Jesus’ main reason for working miracles was to restore wholeness to people.” Discuss 6. What objections has the modern scientist raised with regard to the miracles of Jesus? What response can you propose?CHAPTER EIGHT1. “Luke’s approach to women indicates Jesus was introducing a social revolution into the Jewish society.” Discuss 2. Attempt a critical analysis of the miracles worked by Jesus at Gerasa. 3. Discuss the healing of the Gerasene demonia bring out the significance of this miracle for Jesus and for Luke. 4. Discuss the outcome of Jesus invitation by the Roman official. CHAPTER 91. What is the significance of the Transfiguration for the disciple and for the mission of Jesus? 2. “You are God’s Messiah”. (9:20). How important was Peter’s declaration about Jesus for himself, for the apostles and for Jesus? 3. Assess the way Luke shapes his Gospel to portray Jesus as a prophet. 4. Critically examine the cure of the epileptic demoniac and discuss this in the light of Lucan redaction. 5. Compare and contrast the two episodes of sending on mission recorded in Luke and show how Luke’s purpose shapes the narratives.PART TWO: THE JOURNEY TO JERUSALEM6. “ Luke’s composition of the Third Gospel was designed to show Jesus make one great Journey to Jerusalem”. Discuss the significance of this journey to the overall vision of Luke. 7. “ The journey motif is significant for Luke since it helps in revealing his purpose”. Assess the veracity of this statement 8. “Though the parable of the Good Samaritan favours the Gentiles, it has seeds of universalism”. Discuss 9. “The parable of the Good Samaritan and the story of Martha and Mary are united by a common theme”. Discuss the significance of these events bring out clearly the common theme they contain. 10. “Luke’s eyes are on the response of acceptance and rejection regarding the message and works of the prophet Jesus.” How far is this true?CHAPTER ELEVEN1. “ Luke is a Gospel of prayer”. With particular reference to the journey episodes and teachings, justify this statement. 2. “Jesus’ authority was constantly being opposed by the Jewish religious authorities”. Illustrate this and discuss the implication of such an opposition to the mission of Jesus. 3. Analyse the areas of conflicts Jesus had with the leaders of the Jews? CHAPTER TWELVE1. Examine the areas highlighted by Christ about which the disciple must seek not to imitate the Pharisees and Scribes. 2. “Although Jesus sharply criticizes the rich, he still remains a universal saviour of the poor and the rich”. Show how Luke succeeds in presenting Jesus in this light. 3. “Jesus uses parable to reinforce his teachings.” With particular reference to the parables of Luke show how he reinforces his teachings on riches.CHAPTER THIRTEEN1. Examine the conditions for membership into the Kingdom of God as presented in the Third Gospel100 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level 2. How did Jesus’ actions on the Sabbath contribute to the accomplishment of his mission? 3. “The Messianic Kingdom was at the centre of Jewish national hope.” What were the Jewish expectations of the Kingdom of God and the Messiah? Did the coming of Christ meet these expectations?CHAPTER FOURTEEN1. “In the Gospel of Luke, the reversal of status is a major theme.” With reference to four episodes illustrate this assertion. 2. Discuss the significance of the parable of the Wedding Feast.CHAPTER FIFTEEN1. “The parables of the Lost sheep, lost coin and lost son reveal the mercy of God.” Discuss this theme of mercy as presented by Luke. 2. “True righteousness is determined by acceptance of Jesus”. How does Luke succeed in underscoring this point in his Gospel? 3. What is the meaning of the parable of the Prodigal Son? 4. Examine the theme of love and compassion as reflected in the parable of the prodigal son.CHAPTER SIXTEEN1. “ You cannot serve both God and Mammon”. Examine this statement in the light of Jesus’ teaching and the mentality of the Jews towards mammon. 2. Discuss the significance of the parable of Dives and Lazarus. 3. Examine the parable of the Astute Steward as presented in Luke’s Gospel. CHAPTER SEVENTEEN1. Consider how Luke presents the teachings of Jesus regarding a) The dangers of unbrotherly behaviour b) The dangers of Self-esteem, c) The dangers of ingratitude d) The dangers of false security. 2. Discuss the Lucan concept of the Kingdom of God. 3. One of the themes Luke discusses is the Coming of the Son of Man. Examine his approach towards this topic.CHAPTER EIGHTEEN1. “The parables of the unscrupulous judge and the Pharisee and the Publican do not only remind us that prayer is a characteristic of Luke’s Gospel, but tell us why”. Explain 2. “Luke’s employment of the devise of contrast helps us to appreciate those who accept and reject Jesus.” Discuss. 3. “The Messianic secret enabled Jesus to accomplish his mission at the appropriate time.” DiscussCHAPTER NINETEEN1. “ The episode of Zaccheus is significant in synthesizing some key themes on discipleship taken up by Luke”. Discuss 2. “The parable of the Talents is more about the kingdom of God than on accountability.” Critically examine this assertion.PART THREE: THE EVENTS IN JERUSALEM3. Examine the significance of Jerusalem to the structure of Luke. 4. What is the significance of the entry of Jesus into Jerusalem and his cleansing of the Temple?CHAPTER TWENTY1. Critically examine the Temple ministry of Jesus from the moment he entered Jerusalem. 2. Identify the people who opposed Jesus during his ministry in Jerusalem and say why they opposed him. 3. “The rejection of Jesus implies judgement.” How did Jesus make this known during his Jerusalem ministry?CHAPTER TWENTY ONE101 The Gospel of Luke for Advanced Level 1. “The incident of the widow’s mite is an attack on the Jewish leaders”. Show how Luke establishes this. 2. Examine the Lucan presentation of the coming apocalypse and its significance for Christ.CHAPTER TWENTY TWO1. What evidence can you find in the Gospel of St. Luke to show that the Passion of Christ was willed by God and accepted by Jesus as part of his ministry? 2. “ In Luke's Passion story, the martyred Hero radiates the nobility of his character even upon his adversaries.” Discuss. 3. “Luke’s Passion Narrative, above all else, is a portrayal of the healing and forgiving power of Jesus.” Discuss. 4. Discuss the significance of the Last Supper in Luke’s Gospel. 5. “Judas, would you betray the Son of Man with a kiss?” (Luke 22:48) a. Situate this verse in context b. Account for the behaviour of the person being questioned. c. In what ways did Jesus fall short of Jewish expectations? CHAPTER TWENTY THREE1. Discuss the trial of Jesus. 2. Assess the significance of the death of Jesus. 3. Discuss the issue of responsibility over the death of Jesus as implicit in the presentation of Luke.CHAPTER TWENTY FOUR1. Discuss the significance of the Temple in the vision of Luke. 2. Analyse Luke’s presentation of the empty tomb incident. 3. What is the meaning of the resurrection? 4. How historical are the resurrection stories found in St. Luke’s Gospel? 5. Discuss the significance of the encounter between Jesus and the two disciples on their way to Emmaus. 6. From the resurrection narratives and appearances, what evidence do we have to assert that the gospel of Luke is a Gospel of women?102

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