Democracy in Islamic and Interntional Law: A Case Study of Saudi Arabia. Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Ibrahim Sulaiman Al-Harbi, LL.B (Hons), LL.M with distinction (Imam University) School of Law, Brunel University I Table of Contents: Table of Contents: --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- II Acknowledgements ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- V Abstract --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------VI Abbreviations: -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------VII 1. Part One: Introduction ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 2. Part Two: Evolution of Democracy---------------------------------------------------------------- 6 2.1. Chapter One: Athenian Democracy ---------------------------------------------------------- 6 2.1.1. The Status in Greece at the Beginning -------------------------------------------------- 7 2.1.2. The Beginnings of the Classical Athenian Democracy ----------------------------- 10 2.1.3. The New Age of Democracy ------------------------------------------------------------ 15 2.1.4. Athenian Institutions --------------------------------------------------------------------- 18 2.1.5. A Critical Analysis of Athenian Democracy ----------------------------------------- 23 2.2. Chapter Two: Origin of Liberal Democracy: ---------------------------------------------- 30 2.2.1. The Theory of State and Government ------------------------------------------------- 32 2.2.2. Concept of ‗Social Contract‘ ------------------------------------------------------------ 33 2.2.3. Theory of Checks and Balances -------------------------------------------------------- 38 2.2.4. Democracy and the American Revolution -------------------------------------------- 38 2.2.5. Utilitarianism and Democracy ---------------------------------------------------------- 42 2.2.6. Democracy and Liberal Democracy --------------------------------------------------- 44 2.3. Chapter Three: The Role of Muslim Scholars in the Development of Democracy -- 50 2.3.1. Al-Farabi‘s Rising of Democracy ------------------------------------------------------ 50 2.3.2. Religious, Spiritual and Political Leadership ----------------------------------------- 51 3. Part Three:Conceptualising Modern Democracy in International and Comparative Law 56 3.1. Chapter Four: Principles of Modern Democracy ------------------------------------------ 56 3.1.1. Idea of Majority and Minority in Democratic Society ------------------------------ 57 3.1.2. The Right to Political Participation ---------------------------------------------------- 62 3.1.3. Freedom of Expression ------------------------------------------------------------------ 75 3.1.4. Freedom of Association ------------------------------------------------------------------ 78 3.1.5. Equality ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 82 3.1.6. Separation of Powers --------------------------------------------------------------------- 88 3.1.7. Rule of Law-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 92 3.2. Chapter Five: Democracy in International Law ------------------------------------------- 96 3.2.1. The Beginnings of Democracy in International Law -------------------------------- 96 3.2.2. Democracy in International Law ------------------------------------------------------- 99 4. Part Four: Democracy and Islamic Law: ------------------------------------------------------- 112 4.1. Chapter Six: Sources of Islamic Law: ---------------------------------------------------- 112 4.1.1. Primary sources of Islamic Law ------------------------------------------------------ 113 4.1.2. Secondary Sources of Islamic Law -------------------------------------------------- 116 II 4.1.2.1. Is Ijma equal to Democracy? ---------------------------------------------------- 118 4.1.3. Al-Ijtihad --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 129 4.1.3.1. Is the Rule of the Main Sources of Islamic Law Changeable? ------------- 129 4.1.3.2. Who is eligible for Ijtihad? ------------------------------------------------------ 131 4.1.3.3. Examples of Ijtihad --------------------------------------------------------------- 132 4.2. Chapter Seven: The Form of Government in Islamic Law ---------------------------- 135 4.2.1. Principles behind Formation of Government in Islamic Law: ------------------- 136 4.2.2. Forms of Governments in Islamic Law ---------------------------------------------- 139 4.2.3. Attitude of Islamic Law towards Forms of Government -------------------------- 141 4.2.3.1. Monarchy --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 141 4.2.3.2. Dictatorship ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 143 4.2.3.3. Aristocracy ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 144 4.2.3.4 Existing Form of Government in Islamic States Does Not Mean it is Acting in Accordance with Islamic Law. --------------------------------------------------------- 144 4.3. Chapter Eight: Islamic Law and Democracy --------------------------------------------- 146 4.3.1. Islamic Law and Modern Human Rights -------------------------------------------- 146 4.3.1.1. Apostasy in Islamic Law --------------------------------------------------------- 152 4.3.1.2. How Can Wars in Islam be justified if there is No Compulsion in Islam? 154 4.3.2. Features of Democracy in Islamic Law --------------------------------------------- 157 4.3.2.1. The Right of Non-Muslim in a Muslim Society ------------------------------ 158 4.3.2.2. The Rights of Women under Islamic Law ------------------------------------- 164 4.3.2.3. The Right of Multiple Parties to Exist ------------------------------------------ 168 4.4. Chapter Nine: Al-Shura --------------------------------------------------------------------- 171 4.4.1. Shura in Sources of Islamic Law: ---------------------------------------------------- 172 4.4.2. Rules and Importance of Shura in Islamic Law: ----------------------------------- 173 4.4.3. Status of Shura Decisions ------------------------------------------------------------- 175 4.4.4. Eligibility to become a member of the Shura --------------------------------------- 177 4.4.5. Methods for Choosing Members of the Shura ------------------------------------- 179 4.4.6. Elections and Shura -------------------------------------------------------------------- 180 4.4.7. Voting and Elections under Islamic Law -------------------------------------------- 182 4.4.8. The Function of Shura ----------------------------------------------------------------- 183 4.4.9. The Attitude of Islamic Law towards Political Parties ---------------------------- 185 4.4.10. Participation of Women under Shura System ------------------------------------- 186 4.4.11. Conclusion, Comparison between Shura and Democracy ---------------------- 187 5. Part Five: Practice of Democracy in Saudi Arabia ------------------------------------------- 190 5.1. Chapter Ten: Authorities in Saudi Arabia ------------------------------------------------ 190 5.1.1. Judicial Authority ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 191 5.1.2. Executive Authority -------------------------------------------------------------------- 193 5.1.3. Legislative Authority: ------------------------------------------------------------------ 195 5.2. Chapter Eleven: Shura Council in Saudi Arabia ---------------------------------------- 199 5.2.1. A Historical Background -------------------------------------------------------------- 199 5.2.2. Aim of Shura Council under Saudi Law -------------------------------------------- 202 5.2.3. Membership of Shura Council -------------------------------------------------------- 204 5.2.3.1. Participation of Women ---------------------------------------------------------- 206 III 5.2.4. Competences of Shura Council ------------------------------------------------------- 207 5.2.4.1. First, the Regulation Role. ------------------------------------------------------- 208 5.2.4.2.Second, the Study of International Treaties, Agreements and Concessions 210 5.2.4.3. Third, Control or Auditing Role. ------------------------------------------------ 211 5.2.4.4. Fourth- Summons for Government Officials ---------------------------------- 214 5.2.5. Sessions of Shura Council and its Work -------------------------------------------- 215 5.2.5.1. First- Sessions Administration -------------------------------------------------- 215 5.2.5.2. Second- the Discussions ---------------------------------------------------------- 216 5.2.5.3. Third- Voting and Decision-Making ------------------------------------------- 218 5.3. Chapter Twelve: Steps of improvements of Shura Council as legislative authority in Saudi Arabia --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 223 5.3.1. The Relationship between the Two Parts of Legislative Authority in Saudi Arabia (Shura and Ministers‘ Councils): --------------------------------------------------- 223 5.3.2. Steps Required for the Improvement of Shura Council --------------------------- 223 Part Six: Conclusions -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 228 Annexe -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------