<p>Review for Exam 3 & Final Atmosphere, Climate Change, and Global Warming (8 questions) Layers of the atmosphere & approx. heights (Fig. 9.3) Troposphere / Stratosphere / Mesosphere / Thermosphere Chemical constituents of atmosphere (troposphere) N2 (78%), O2 (21%), Ar, CO2, water vapor Ozone layer is in stratosphere Earth’s Energy Budget and Climate (Fig. 9.5) Greenhouse gases & Global warming (Read Case Study, p 206) Know Greenhouse gases: CO2 (60%), CH4 (20%), CFC's (10%), N2O (5%); also includes water vapor  Greenhouse gases —>  Atmospheric warming Predicting effects of  greenhouse gases: Requires understanding effects of climate variation and long-term climate change (Fig. 9.8 9.9 & p216-17) Positive and Negative feedbacks complicate studying Earth's climate Global warming will change temperature & rainfall patterns, ice caps, and sea levels These physical changes will affect plant life, animal life, ecosystems, and human populations! Oceans will be vulnerable to temperature and acidification! Evidence of global warming and its effects are extensive (p 218) Strategies for dealing with greenhouse gases (solutions vs. adaptations) Meeting the Kyoto Protocol with various social and technological methods (Section 9.4) Text Coverage: Chapter 9 (Sections 9.1–9.4) Water Resources & Pollution - (10 questions) Water distribution and compartments (Fig. 10.3; not Table 10.2) Oceans comprise 97.5% of Earth’s water Fresh water is only 2.5% of Earth’s water 87% of the fresh water is ice and snow 12% is groundwater (Fig. 10.6) 1% is surface fresh water Water conservation & sustainability (much variation among countries) Water rich vs. water poor countries is mostly a function of rainfall [Fig. 10.2] At least 45 poor countries have serious water stress (means < 1000m3 [260,000 gal] avail. per person/year) More importantly: 1 Billion people in LDCs lack safe water (carry diseases, e.g., dysentery; Cholera & Guinea worm) 2 Billion lack adequate sanitation Agriculture is biggest user (70% of all water withdrawal) – Thus, most important area for conservation Domestic use is about 20% in most countries (toilets use 40% of this in U. S.; see Fig. 10.14) Industry is quite variable (averages <<10% in LDCs , but higher in developed countries) Water sources vary by country and within the U. S. Surface fresh water supplies 80% of water worldwide (but 60% in U.S.) See text & notes re: issues of availability (e.g., “environmental costs of dams”) Groundwater (aquifers) supply 20% of water (40% in U.S.) –> most are subject to overdraft (unsustainable) See notes re: Ogallala aquifer in the Great Plains of U.S. Water Resource Issues in U. S. & California Deficient surface supplies (see notes for Colorado River and S. California!) Overdrawing groundwater (Ogallala aquifer in the Great Plains: Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas) Salinization (b/c of irrigation) Water Pollution Sources of pollution Point sources (40% of water pollution; examples) Non-point sources (60% of water pollution; examples) Types of pollution and sources (know primary sources and impacts of each major type) Sediments: —> cloudy water —>  photosynthesis —>  2° productivity also provide surfaces for bacteria & toxic chem., & damage bottom dwellers as they settle out Organic (BOD) wastes: —> decomposition —>  O2 —> death of animals Specific problems: Oxygen sag curves in streams; Eutrophication in lakes Soluble plant nutrients (nitrates, phosphates): —>  algae growth —>  light —>  plant death —>  O2 —>  death of animals Inorganic toxic chemicals (salts, acids, “heavy” metals like lead, mercury):  quality for drinking, crops, and aquatic life Insoluble organic chemicals (oil, solvents, pesticides): —> highly toxic to all life Pathogens (viruses, bacteria, protozoa, etc.): —> Water borne pathogens cause 80% of diseases in LDC Surface water pollution Pollution of U.S. surface waters has been greatly reduced since 1960’s; some states still have problems Ground pollution remains a difficult problem LDC countries have massive problems (~1 billion people lack safe water) Groundwater pollution Becoming an increasing problem with urbanization, development and waste disposal – Up to 75% of waste disposal sites may be potentially contaminating ground water Ocean pollution Coastal areas heavily impacted because of population (50% of people live on/near coasts) Specific problems: ocean dumped sewage (poorly treated), industrial waste dumping, oil spills, plastics, and floating debris (“ghost nets”) Fertilizer & sediment pollution of Gulf of Mexico; Toxic pollution of Gulf of California Prevention and cleanup of water pollution (Federal Water legislation) Clean Water Acts (1972; 1985); Safe Drinking Water Act (1974), Toxic Substances Control (1976) [International cooperation required for ocean pollution problems - London Dumping Convention (1990)] From 1972 - 1992: clean water increased from 36% to 90% (for swimming, fishing, & "designated use") Text Coverage: Chapter 10 Economics and Sustainable Development – (8 questions) Neoclassical Economics guides modern Market economics based on following assumptions: Economic Capital: Manufactured, Human, [Social], & Natural are the the resources for economic growth Only Supply and Demand determine distribution of resources and thus wealth All capital types inter-substitutable (Natural Resources no more important than other resources) Economic vitality is evaluated based only on Growth of all supply and demand activity (= GDP) Market economy problems are many, and esp. include lack of environmental/health protection Lack of full cost pricing Market price includes only internal (direct) costs Omits external cost to society & future generations (e.g., contaminating air, water, resource loss) Damage to some resources by use of others (cutting forest —> damage to watershed) (mining coal —> destroys forest) Lack of ownership (responsibility) of some resources (air, water, ground water) [but individual ownership not appropriate] Lack of ability to correctly cost account for resource loss Incorrect method of evaluating economic well-being (growth in GDP) Know problems with using growth of GDP Many hidden negatives in GDP: pollution, health impacts, resource depletion Growth is accomplished by:  population,  consumption per person, or technological efficiency First two have negative impacts on environment & the last can have neg. impacts on jobs/ families Underestimates positives: Energy efficiency, good health, self sufficiency, future options Does not account for distribution of wealth (one billionare plus 1000 at poverty = 1001 millionares!) Know alternative measure of economic well being (Genuine Progress Index!): GPI = GNP minus pollution costs, resource depletion, long-term environ. damage, inequality of wealth GDP has more than doubled (170%) since 1950 [Fig. 14.23], but wages have declined by 14% GPI increased 60% from 1950 to 1970, but has changed little since 1970 Ecological economics Stresses linkage to the natural world —> “Ecological Services” (Fig. 14.17; Table 4.5; Table 14.6) Attempt to achieve "Steady-state and sustainable economy” Green businesses and green consumers! (see also Chapter 15, p 382) conspicuous consumption,  green purchases (less fossil fuel [carbon], less meat, less processed food) Role of government  negative environ. incentives [historical];  positive environ. incentives Correct future valuations, cost-benefit analyses, protection of public resources Achieve full cost pricing (internalize external costs) Measure true well-being In short, promote sustainability Text Coverage: Chapter 14 (sections 14.3 – 14.6) Environmental Policy & Sustainability – (5 questions) U. S. Environmental Policy – A complex process requiring citizen involvement, strong leadership, compromise Know how Policy process works & brief history of U. S. Environmental Laws Statutory Law, Judicial Law, Administrative Law *Know 2 Negatives associated with each of the 3 main branches of government Know National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) is key U. S. Environmental Law (1970) Authorizes Council on Environ. Quality; Requires an Environ. Impact Statement for every Federal project Creating new environmental laws is much more difficult now Many anti-environmental groups, Uncertainty about information, consequences Most anti-environ. pressure comes from just a few industries: developers, energy/resource extraction, agribusiness Sustainability (Mostly in the notes) Key messages from Millenium Assessment: Earth’s ecosystems have been greatly degraded in achieving wealth for 2 billion people Loss of: fish stocks, tropical forests, grazing lands, and especially, ecosystem services But 2 billion people still live in great poverty & vulnerability Bringing them out of poverty will even more pressure on the planet Achieving global prosperity and sustainability will require coordinated efforts of governments to recognize importance of protection of natural ecosystems Text Coverage: Chapter 15 (Sections 15.1,15.2,15.3 & 15.5)</p><p>Question Areas for Final – (4-6 questions) 1) Ecosystems (Chapter 2 - pp 35-47; but mostly notes) Describe the two principal processes that are occurring in ecosystems Be able to identify key levels in a trophic pyramid and describe how energy is lost in this pyramid Be able to describe the key steps in the Nitrogen and Carbon cycles 2) Communities (Chapter 3 - pp 50-62; 67-74; but mostly notes) Know Competition, Resource portioning, Niche, Keystone species, and Biodiversity Community structure and dynamics (Succession) 3) Agriculture (only from Notes) Know different kinds of agriculture worldwide Be able to describe 4 environ. impacts of agriculture (especially details assoc. with neg. aspects of pesticide use) What are the benefits of organic farming (what does organic farming include?)</p>