ORDINARY INDIAN PENTECOSTAL CHRISTOLOGY by SHAIBU ABRAHAM A Thesis Submitted to the University of Birmingham for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY School of Philosophy, Theology and Religion College of Arts and Law The University of Birmingham March 2011 University of Birmingham Research Archive e-theses repository This unpublished thesis/dissertation is copyright of the author and/or third parties. The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation. Any use made of information contained in this thesis/dissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged. Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder. ABSTRACT This thesis is an investigation into the nature of Christology among ordinary Pentecostals in India. Pentecostalism is growing rapidly among Tribal-groups, Dalits, lower castes and ordinary people. However, the movement has not articulated its theological identity in order to consolidate and further its development. Therefore, this study aims to analyse the ordinary Christology using qualitative research methods such as interviews, focus groups, and participant observation. It is argued that their Christological understandings have been formed and expressed in challenging circumstances and given extraordinary energy through Pentecostal phenomena associated with revivalism. Ordinary Indian Pentecostals understand Jesus as the healer, exorcist, provider and protector in the context of poor health-care, a spirit worldview, extreme poverty, caste-system and religious persecution. Their Christian experience enables them to acknowledge Jesus as the Saviour, Lord and supreme God. These Christological themes are consonant with the larger Pentecostal tradition, theology and indeed the New Testament testimony. The argument critically engages with scholarship in Pentecostalism and the broader Christian tradition to propose a modification of these Christological categories. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am delighted to express deep gratitude and love towards a few people who were crucial to the successful completion of this research. I am particularly grateful to Dr. Mark J. Cartledge who guided me meticulously throughout this project, by patiently correcting and encouraging me and also by understanding all of my concerns. Without him, this thesis would not have seen completion. I also want to thank Dr. Andrew Davis for reading the draft and giving helpful comments, which enabled me to turn it into a better piece of work. I wish to thank to Dr. Finny Philip who encouraged me to venture into this project, for his help in times of need and on all aspects of this work. I would also like to acknowledge the concern shown by Dr. Wessly Lukose and the help he provided towards the completion of this dissertation. The student community of Filadelfia Bible College, Udaipur (India), deserves to be acknowledged for the great prayer support given to our life here in Birmingham. I would like to thank my wife, Sheena, who stood with me throughout this project, supporting me to finance my studies and our life in Birmingham, as well as for her enduring prayers. I also extend my love to my parents, P.M. Mathew and Saramma Mathew, who taught me to love the Bible and the people of God, as well as for their love and prayers. I am greatly indebted to The Birmingham Pentecostal Fellowship members for the prayers, financial support, love and respect showered upon me. Needless to say, their support was of great help in the completion of the project. I also wish to extend my love and thanks towards many ‘ordinary’ Indian Pentecostals who shared their testimonies, views and ideas with me, a fact that helped enrich this research. To Sheena with love ABBREVIATIONS AoG Assemblies of God ABD The Anchor Bible Dictionary AJPS Asian Journal of Pentecostal Studies BJP Bharatiya Janata Party BSP Bahujan Samaj Party CLS Christian Literature Society CMS The Church Missionary Society CNI Church of North India CoG Church of God CSI Church of South India Dharma Deepika A Journal of South Indian Missiological Research DJG Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels DPL Dictionary of Paul and His Letters EPW Economic and Political Weekly GDP Gross Domestic Product IBMR International Bulletin of Missionary Research IJST International Journal of Systematic Theology IMR Infant Mortality Rate IPC Indian Pentecostal Church JEPTA Journal of the European Pentecostal Theological Association JPT Journal of Pentecostal Theology LMS The London Missionary Society MLA Member of Legislative Assembly MP Member of Parliament NCRB National Crime Records Bureau NDBT New Dictionary of Biblical Theology NDT New Dictionary of Theology NFHS National Family Health Survey NIB The New Interpreters Bible NICNT The New International Commentary on the New Testament NIDPCM The New International Dictionary of Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements NIGTC The New International Greek Testament Commentary PHC Public Health Centre Pneuma The Journal of the Society for Pentecostal Studies RSS Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh S.C. Scheduled Castes S.T. Scheduled Tribes TS Theological Studies UNDP United Nations Development Programme UP Uttar Pradesh VHP Vishwa Hindu Parishad VKA Vanvasi Kalyan Ashram WBC Word Biblical Commentary WHO World Health Organisation WMUS Women’s Union Missionary Society Glossary of Hindi and Indian Terms adivasis Tribal people advaita non-dualism (Hindu philosophy) anganwadi government run nursery school in villages antaryamin in-dweller avatara, avatar incarnation Babri-Masjid a Muslim Mosque at the site of Ram’s birth in Ayodhya bhaktas devotees bhakti devotion bhakti marga way of devotion bhoots ghosts, evil spirits bhopa, bhua, bhuva-bhagat traditional healers Brahman the ultimate (absolute) reality brahma Sutra precepts of Brahman (Hindu Philosophy) bramanic related to brahmin caste crore 10 million crorepati billionaire dakan evil spirit Dalit ‘untouchable’ deeksha initiation ceremony devara shrine ekal vidyalayas one teacher school guru religious teacher, advisor Hindu Dharma Hindu moral order Hindutva political Hinduism, Hinduness Isvara god jadhu tona black magic jadi-booti roots and leaves jnana marga way of knowledge jungali uncivilised with bad customs and manners karma deeds karma marga way of deeds Lok Sabha lower house of the Indian Parliament malik, ooparwala master, God mantras Chants mata, mataji female deity of Tribal people mimamsa interpretation of Hindu scripture mukti salvation nirguna Brahman the ultimate reality without attributes padre, padri pastor, priest (Christian) panchayat village council pooja, puja rituals, Hindu worship puranas Hindu scripture purna avatara complete and final incarnation Rajya Sabha upper house of the Indian Parliament Ram-Janmabhoomi the movement to build a temple of Ram to movement replace the Babri Masjid at the site of Ram’s birth in Ayodhya rath-yatra chariot procession sadhus saints, monks saguna Brahman God with attributes Saiva Siddhanta Precepts related to shiva sect sakshi testimony samsara the world Sangh-Parivar the RSS family of organisations sarpanchs elected head of a village council sati immolation of widows satyagrahi one who pursues the truth shaivism Related shiva sect shakti power shifa healing shuddhikaran purification ceremony, reconversion to Hinduism tantric, tantrik black magician trishuls tridents upanishadic related to upanishads (Hindu Scriptures) vaisnava tradition tradition related to god Vishnu vedantic related to vedas vrata religious vows yishu Jesus TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Pentecostalism in India 2 1.2 Need for a Contextual Pentecostal Christology 8 1.3 Aim of the Study 14 1.4 Objectives of the Study 14 1.5 Significance of the Study 15 1.6 Limitations of the Study 16 1.7 Overview 16 Chapter 2 METHODOLOGY 20 2.1 Theology as ‘Contextual’ Faith 22 2.2 Theology as ‘Practical’ Faith 23 2.3 Theology as ‘Ordinary’ Faith 24 2.4 Empirical Theology 26 2.5 Pentecostal Theology and Empirical Research 28 2.6 Ordinary Christology 32 2.7 Ordinary Indian Pentecostal Christology 35 2.7.1 Sources of Ordinary Indian Pentecostal Christology 38 2.8 The Researcher 41 2.9 Research Methods 42 2.9.1 Ethical Review 45 2.9.2 Participant Observation 45 2.9.3 Personal Interviews 47 2.9.4 Documentary Analysis 49 2.9.5 Focus Groups 50 2.9.6 Data Analysis 53 Chapter 3 THE INDIAN CONTEXT 56 3.1 India: An Emerging Power 57 3.2 India: A Nation of Inequalities 60 3.2.1 Poverty 63 3.2.2 Incapacitated Education 65 3.2.3 Incapacitated Health-care 67 3.2.4 Lack of Roads and Transportation 72 3.2.5 Harmful Practices 72 3.2.6 Communal Violence 74 3.2.7 Caste System 84 Chapter 4 INDIAN PENTECOSTAL HISTORY 94 4.1 Methodological Shift in Pentecostal Historiography 96 4.2 Methodology for North Indian Pentecostal History 99 4.2.1 Poly-Centric Historical Approach 99 4.2.2 Religio-Cultural and Socio-Political Context 100 4.2.3 Subaltern History 102 4.2.4 Local Revival Movements 104 4.2.5 Role of Native Missionaries 104 4.2.6 Western Missionary Movements 106 4.2.7 South Indian Contributions 107 4.2.8 Mission Organisations 109 4.2.9 Global Influence 109 4.3 Twentieth Century Revivals in India 110 4.3.1 Revivals in South India 110 4.3.2 Revival in Northeast India 112 4.3.3 Revivals in North India 113 4.4 North Indian Pentecostal History 119 4.4.1 North Indian Pentecostal History (1905-1920) 119 4.4.2 North Indian Pentecostal History (1920-1960) 122 4.4.3 North Indian Pentecostal History (1960-2000) 133 Chapter 5 INDIAN CHRISTOLOGY 144 5.1 Christologies from Secular Perspective 146 5.1.1 The Christology of Raja Ram Mohan Roy 147 5.2 Christologies from Religious Perspective 150 5.2.1 The Christology of Brahmabandhav Upadhyaya 152 5.2.2 The Christology of Appasamy 155 5.3 Christologies from Cultural Perspective 158 5.3.1 The Christology of Sadhu Sundar Singh 158 5.3.2 Recent Cultural Christologies 164 5.4 Christologies from Socio-Political Perspective 166 5.4.1 The Christology of M.