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Photographs included in the original manuscript have been reproduced xerographically in this copy. Higher quality 6" x 9” black and white photographic prints are available for any photographs or illustrations appearing in this copy for an additional charge. Contact UMI directly to order. Bell & Howell Information and Learning 300 North Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 USA UMJ 800-521-0600 IDENTITY AND CITIZENSHIP; AFRICAN AMERICAN ATHLETES, SPORT. AND THE FREEDOM STRUGGLES OF THE 1960s DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for The Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Maureen Margaret Smith. M.S.. M.A. ***** The Ohio State Universit 1999 Dissertation Committee: Approved by Professor Melvin Adelman, Adviser Professor Seymour Kleinman Adviser Professor James Upton College of Education Graduate Program UMI Number: 9951727 Copyright 1999 by Smith, Maureen Margaret All rights reserved UTVtl* UMI Microform 9951727 Copyright 2000 by Bell & Howell Information and Learning Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. Bell & Howell Information and Learning Company 300 North Zeeb Road P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, MI 48106-1346 Copyright by- Maureen Margaret Smith 1999 ABSTRACT The turbulent decade of the 1960’s witnessed great changes in American society. The world of athletics was not immune from the strife. Athletics were becoming a viable forum for Black athletes to voice their opinions regarding their treatment in athletics, as well as their treatment as African Americans in a nation that was struggling with the issue of race. More specifically, they attempted to define themselves as African Americans within a white sporting culture that had previously defined them in very subservient and exploitative terms. The movements and actions taken by Black athletes during this decade merit attention as part of the larger discourse of race relations in the United States, both on the athletic fields, and more importantly as part of the broader civil rights struggle. This study explores the role and voice of African American athletes as part of a discourse on self definition and American identity, which was characteristic of the Black intellectual and social movement in the 1960s. Their participation in one of our nation’s most highly revered and glamorous professions, sport, during the 1960s when full participation in American society was a major goal of the civil rights movement merely provided a setting for these athletes to participate in the larger dialogue concerning race relations. These actions of protests undoubtedly placed them in an athletic civil rights movement within the broader national civil rights movement, though no less significant, which could be titled “The Revolt of the Black Athlete.” Specific examples of individuals and events that illustrate race consciousness and illuminate our understanding of these new demands expressed within the sporting arena are explored. These events include; the five boxing matches that pitted Floyd Patterson, Sonny Liston and Muhammad Ali against each other in the ring, the draft evasion of Ali, a number of boycotts and protests of college athletes, the victory stand demonstration of Tommie Smith and John Carlos at the 1968 Mexico City Olympic Games, the participation of Black female in athletics, and the refusal of Curt Flood to be traded to the Phillies and his subsequent suit against major league baseball. Ill ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I have been writing this dissertation for almost five years and with that man days and long nights come many thanks. My family has been supportive of my studies from day one, even when they really had no clue what it was I was studying. “Sport History?” To my Dad, thanks for everything, and 1 mean everything. And to Laurel, who put it into my head that my name could be in a book when I saw my name in her acknowledgments. To all my brothers and sisters. Matt and Steph, the wolves in my pack, and to the second generation of Smith kids, Jordan, Mercer, Witt and Pierce. A special thanks to my sister, Steph, who has been my number one cheerleader throughout my life - maybe we couldn’t share a room as kids, but your unconditional love is a godsend. I am still circling yes. To my Grandma Tully, for her endless queries about when she’s finally going to have a doctor in the family. Lastly, to my mom, for her sacrifices that came early on and paid off years later. In my book, she’s okay with me. To my friends, teachers, and teammates from Ithaca College. I would especially like to thank Teresa Vossen-Bucci, Marianne Santoro, Coach Bill Ware, Dr. Deb Wuest, and Dr. Steve Mosher. To my friends and teachers at The Ohio State University. I would especially like to thank Dr. Paulette Pierce, Dr. James Upton, Dr. Sy Kleinman, Dr. Kate Riffee, Chris Valentino, Alicia Eckhart, and Mike Lomax. A special thank you to a fellow New Yorker and now Buckeye, Virginia Goggin. To all my friends and colleagues in the North American Society for Sport History and the North American Society of Sociology of Sport. Your encouragement over the last few years has been tremendous and more than helpful in some of my darkest days. Seeing everyone else finish ahead of me was terrific motivation. A special thanks to Nancy Bouchier, Rita Liberti, Tina Parratt, Jim Coates, Jerry Gems, Shelley Lucas and Dan Nathan. Over the last four years in Sacramento, I have been fortunate to have the cheering support of the American River College Athletic Department. My students at California State University, Sacramento have been patient, supportive and tremendously encouraging. I would be remiss if I did not acknowledge the faculty and staff at California State University, Sacramento. To be hired before the completion of this monumental project is a testament to their faith in my abilities. I would like to give a heartfelt thanks to Colonel George and Nancy Kemen, who have opened their house and hearts to me. Your emotional encouragement, free dinners, and good company have been greatly appreciated. And finally, to my very best friend and possibly (OK - you are) my most favorite person, Kimberly Kemen. Kipper, could you ever know how you motivated me? I give special thanks for all your support and for teaching me the real meaning of commitment to a task - that some jobs take past midnight to get done and that patience is a virtue. Your friendship and company are absolutely the tops. YiB, YiB. I can’t forget to mention the unconditional love of my animules. Bear, Chance, Eli, and Seamus. Meow and Bark. Lastly, to my advisor. Mel Adelman, who at times had the feeling that I would never complete the mission, but who gave me great insight and support through the years. He once sent me an e-mail that warned, “The problem of writing about recent events is that everybody thinks they know something about it and older historians are even worse since they lived through it." The discussions and advice and critiques and yammering will never be forgotten and I can only hope to be half the master. VI VITA June 7. 1967 .................................................Bom - Oneonta, New York 198 9 ...............................................................B.S.. Physical Education, Ithaca College 199 0...............................................................M.S., Physical Education, Ithaca College 1994...............................................................M.A., Black Studies, The Ohio State University 1991-1995....................................................Graduate Teaching Associate, The Ohio State University 1995-present.................................................. Assistant Professor, Health and Physical Education, California State University, Sacramento PUBLICATIONS 1. Maureen Smith, Book Review, Muhammad Ali: The People’s Champ, Elliot Com, ed., in Sport History Review, 2 {1997 ). 2. Maureen Smith, Audio-visual Review, “Football America," in International Review for the Sociology of Sport 34 {1999); 75-77. 3. Communication Studies 298, “Shopping For Family," Qualitative Inquiry 5 (1999); 147-180. FIELDS OF STUDY Major Field; Education Specialization; Cultural Studies in Sport vu TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ii Acknowledgements iv Vita vü Chapters: 1. Introduction 1 2. A Dialogue of Black Liberation 27 3. ‘Nobody Knows My Name:’ Utilizing Works by Black Activists and Intellectuals of the 1960s to Understand the Participation of Black Athletes During the Civil Rights Movement 70 4. ‘The Evolution of