This work is protected by copyright and other intellectual property rights and duplication or sale of all or part is not permitted, except that material may be duplicated by you for research, private study, criticism/review or educational purposes. Electronic or print copies are for your own personal, non- commercial use and shall not be passed to any other individual. No quotation may be published without proper acknowledgement. For any other use, or to quote extensively from the work, permission must be obtained from the copyright holder/s. ACCELERATED EROSION OF ARABLE SOILS WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE WEST MIDLANDS Thesis submitted for the Degree of Ph.D. in the University of Keele, 1979 by Alan Harrison Reed, B.A., M.Sc. VOLUME 1 TEXT IS CLOSE TO THE EDGE OF THE PAGE IN THE ORIGINAL ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I should like to take this opportunity of thanking my supervisor, Dr E. Derbyshire, for his help, guidance and encouragement, also Mr G. Seabrooke, Director of Wolverhampton Polytechnic, for arranging financial support during the last two years of study and Mr P.E. Sheppard, Head of the Department of Arts, for his support. I was also lucky to have the support of a large number of farmers, who gave me unlimited access to their land. My special thanks go to my wife, Nita, for typing the thesis. ACCELERATED EROSION OF ARABLE SOILS WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE WEST MIDLANDS ABSTRACT Whilst acknowledging the growing concern about the environmental impact of modern farming on the soil system, there has been little discussion about the natural extension of these problems where cropping takes place on sloping terrain - soil erosion. The widely held belief that accelerated erosion of arable soils rarely occurs in the United Kingdom outside of parts of eastern England affected by wind erosion, is challenged here. Evidence to substantiate the view that soil erosion (splash erosion, sheet, rill and gully erosion) is widespread in lowland Britain and is a cause for concern and action is derived in general from a number of areas in the United Kingdom and in particular from parts of the West Midlands. On more than six hundred sites in the West Midlands where water erosion was recorded by the writer during 1967-1976» s°il compaction and down -slope cultivation lines were identified as major contributory factors in over 95$ of cases. Three 'arable' parishes in east Shropshire are used as a case study where erosion episodes have been monitored by the writer (l967*-1976) • the total arable hectarage of each parish, 17$, 27$ and 38$ respectively was affected by a combination of wind and water erosion over the stated period. The prin­ cipal causal factors, notably rainfall, wind, slope, soil compaction and management practices are examined. A detailed analysis of daily and hourly rainfall data for key stations provides background information for a special study of soil erosion events during 1967-1969 anc* 1976. The principal factors which affect the development of concen­ trated and unconcentrated surface run-off on arable soils are examined and a tentative classification of erosional forms is proposed. In the summary a case is made for the introduction of a national organisation to monitor soil erosion and provide guidance on soil conservation measures CONTENTS Paree Introduction: Outline of the aims and objectives of the study. 1- 4 Chapter 1: Evaluation of research work on soil erosion in the U.S.A., Canada. Application of research findings to the U.K. situation. 5- 33 Chapter 2: Accelerated erosion of arable soils in the U.K.l Historical and pedological evidence. 34- 56 Chapter 3: Accelerated erosion of arable soils in the U.K.2 The present day pattern of erosion by water and wind. 57- 80 Chapter 4 : Analysis of the principal factors affect­ ing the erosion of arable soils by rainfall and raindrop splash in the U.K. 81-118 Chapter 5: A study of the principal factors which influence the development of concentrated and uncon­ centrated surface run-off on arable soils in the United Kingdom. 119-155 Chapter 6: Analysis of the principal factors affecting the erosion of arable soils by wind in the U.K. 156-182 Chapter 7 : Soil erosion in the Vest Midlands: a qualitative assessment of the distribution and an analysis of the main causal factors. 183-219 Chapter 8: Soil erosion monitoring: a ten-year survey of soil erosion in the east Shropshire parishes of Claverley, Rudge and Vorfield. 220-265 Chapter 9 : Evaluation of selected field methods used in measuring soil erosion on arable soils. 266-287 Chapter 10: Impact of modern agriculture on the soil system and the increasing hazard of soil erosion. Summary of field evidence: conclusions and recommendations towards a policy of soil conservation in the U.K. 288-311 References : 312-333 LIST OF FIGURES (Located in Volume 2) Page 1. Hedge acting as a trap for drifting sand 1 2. Talud or step along hedgerow running transverse to slope 2 3. Talud in the process of development 3 k. Unconcentrated soil wash and incipient rill erosion k 5» Base of slope deposition 5 6. Layered hedgerow partially buried by eroded soil 6 7. Deep truncation in sandy loam by confined gully ero­ sion 7 8. Distribution of sandy arable and earthy peat soils liable to erosion 8 9« The relation between kinetic energy of rainfall and intensity 9 10. Transport of soil particles in snow drift (Pattingham 1963) 10 11. Contact areas between tyre and soil for different soil conditions (after Soehne 1958) 11 12. Slope-effect chart (topographic factor LS) 12 13. Loss of structure - severe puddled soil surface 13 14. 'Flash* flooding causing erosion and damage to sugar beet 14 15» Confined rill erosion affecting ground prepared for sugar beet 15 16. Unconfined rill erosion, incipient gully and gully development 16 17. Pattern of gullies, Hilton, east Shropshire 17 18. Confined and unconfined rill erosion affecting winter barley 18 19« Confined rill erosion 19 20. Raindrop splash, splash transport and unconcentrated surface wash along seed-drill furrows 20 21. Confined and unconfined rill erosion 21 22. Confined rill erosion on soils of Newport series 22 23. Detail of tractor wheeling with beet seed-drill roller 23 LIST OF FIGURES continued Page 2k. Lug pattern on tractor wheel 2k 25* Sequence of stages in the erosion of tractor wheeling 25 26. Detail of erosion pattern in tractor wheeling 26 27. Tractor and implement wheelings 27 28. Confined rills and gullies, Hallom 28 29» Unconfined rill erosion affecting Bridgnorth and Vick soils 29 30. Unconfined rill erosion on an experimental plot, Hilton 30 31» Confined and unconfined rill erosion (Salwick and Newport series) 31 32 and 33« Confined gully erosion (Newport series) Hilton 32 3^» Cross sections of confined gully (A) in tractor wheeling 33 35 and 36. Unconfined gully erosion (Newport series) 34 37» Confined rill, incipient gully and gully erosion (Hallom) 35 38. Confined gully erosion in tractor wheelings (Hallom) 36 39* Confined and unconfined gully erosion (Hilton) 37 kO. Incipient rill erosion and concentrated overland flow (Hilton) 38 4l. Unconfined rills and incipient gullies in Bridgnorth series 39 *♦2. Unconfined gully erosion, Bridgnorth series (Bonningale) 40 43. Unconfined incipient gullying and gully erosion (Quatford) 4l 44. Unconfined trough-like incipient gullies (Rudge series) k2 45. Large overlapping fans of eroded soil (Hilton) ¿*3 46. Accelerated concentrated run-off during the passage of a storm (l) 44 LIST OF FIGURES continued Page 47. Accelerated concentrated run-off during the passage of a storm (2) 44 48. Accelerated concentrated run-off during the passage of a storm (3) 44 49. Unconcentrated surface wash 45 50. Deltaic growth of eroded soil in temporary ponded run-off 46 51« Deltaic growth of eroded soil into floodedstream 47 52 and 53. Large single fan 48 54. Deltaic growth of eroded soil into small pond 49 55» Confined rill erosion on land prepared for sugar beet 50 56. Incipient confined rilling and sedimentation in potato furrows 51 57* Compaction lines in potato furrows 51 58. Erosion of ridge crests running at right angles to wind direction 52 59« Commencement of soil blowing, Worfield 53 60. Vind eroded ridges and infilled furrows 54 61. Cross section of eroding ridge 55 62. Detail of eroded ridge crests 56 63. Detail of ridge crests and furrows 57 64. Ripples in wind blown soil 58 65. Surface creep affecting large exposed field 59 66. Drifted soil against hedgerow 60 67. Gully erosion in the Clee Hills 6l 68. Soil association map of the Vest Midlands Pocket a 69. Rainfall map of the Vest Midlands 62 70. Distribution of thunderstorm activity in the U.K. 63, 63a 71« East Shropshire* Location of parishes 64 72. East Shropshire* Parish boundaries 65 73» East Shropshire* Relief and drainage 66 LIST OF FIGURES continued Page 7^. Rainfall stations, east Shropshire 75» Frequency of all falls of 10 mm and greater for Newport 68 76. Agricultural land classification for the three parishes 69 77» Land use capability classification for the three parishes 70 78. Field boundary changes in the three parishes 1967- 1976 71 79» Vertical airphoto showing gully erosion 72 80, Oblique airphoto showing gully erosion 73 81, Soil erosion damage by nan-off and ponding 74 82, Location of eroded fields in the three parishes 75 83» Frequency of erosion on a field to field basis (three parishes) 76 8h, Distribution of eroded fields in relation to relief 77 85. Plot design and layout, Hilton 78 86. Site preparation for calibration plots, Hilton 1978 79 87« 'Badland' topography. Severe active erosion near Nimes, Languedoc 80 88, Confined rill erosion in vineyard near Sommieres, Languedoc 81 LIST OF TABLES Papre 1.