City University of New York (CUNY) CUNY Academic Works All Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects 9-2016 The Emergence of the Bird in Andean Paracas Art. c. 900 BCE - 200 CE Mary B. Brown The Graduate Center, City University of New York How does access to this work benefit ou?y Let us know! More information about this work at: https://academicworks.cuny.edu/gc_etds/1601 Discover additional works at: https://academicworks.cuny.edu This work is made publicly available by the City University of New York (CUNY). Contact: [email protected] THE EMERGENCE OF THE BIRD IN ANDEAN PARACAS ART, c.900 BCE – 200 CE by MARY BROWN A dissertation submitted to the Graduate Faculty in Art History in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, The City University of New York 2016 ii © 2016 MARY BROWN All rights reserved iii The Emergence of the Bird in Andean Paracas Art: c. 900 BCE - 200 CE by Mary Brown This manuscript has been read and accepted by the Graduate Faculty in Art History in satisfaction of the dissertation requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Date Dr. Eloise Quiñones Keber Chair of Examining Committee Date Dr. Rachel Kousser Executive Officer Supervisory Committee Dr. Judy Sund Dr. Timothy Pugh Dr. Cameron McNeil THE CITY UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK iv Abstract THE EMERGENCE OF THE BIRD IN ANDEAN PARACAS ART c. 900 BCE - 200 CE By Mary Brown Adviser: Eloise Quiñones Keber In the first millennium BCE, an enigmatic cultural group now known as Paracas inhabited the remote desert coast of southern Peru. Following its disappearance, Paracas culture did not emerge in the historical record until 1927, when three burial centers were scientifically excavated on the arid Paracas peninsula that gave the culture its name. The burials contained over 400 mummy bundles that preserved the only physical remnants of this culture and its unique art forms. When unwrapped, mummy bundles of elite males revealed multiple layers of finely woven and elaborately embroidered textiles and painted ceramics, along with gold objects, feathers, and other finely crafted artifacts. Such items indicate that the individuals were part of a stratified village society whose members participated in complex ceremonial activities. The art works feature figural imagery based, to a great extent, on the numerous species of sea, air, and land fauna of the south coastal area. In fact, avian imagery and costumes, generally understood to represent humans impersonating supernaturals, dominate in Paracas iconography. The intensity of this interest in birds, demonstrated by their prominence in the art forms, indicates that they held special meaning and value in Paracas society. In addition to art historical methodologies, this project investigates the emergence of avian imagery and costume in Paracas art by employing the approach of evolutionary aesthetics. It interprets these avian subjects and feathered accessories as reflections of evolved aesthetic inclinations, activated and amplified by the rich bird life in the Paracas region, local v ideology, and social needs of the elite members of this hierarchical society. Inspired by the ecology of the Paracas coastal realm, the emergence of the bird in Paracas art initiated a break from an earlier supernatural triad of serpent, bird, and jaguar forged in the first millennium in the Andean highlands. This avian intervention thus reveals a previously unrecognized artistic and ideological agency among Paracas people that demonstrates that they were much more autonomous and inventive than previously acknowledged in scholarship. My study of the small-scale, coastal Paracas society, frequently overlooked in favor of larger highland cultures such as the earlier Chavín and later Inca, also enriches our understanding of the artistic contributions of the many diverse cultures of the South American Andes and the Pre-Columbian Americas as a whole. vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am very grateful to Professor Eloise Quiñones Keber for introducing me to the field of Pre-Columbian art. Her course Art of the Andes revealed part of the world previously unknown to me and ultimately changed my direction in graduate school. As a teacher and adviser, Dr. Quiñones Keber’s dedication to her students is truly exceptional, in particular her tenacity during the dissertation years. As the final student work, my dissertation learning curve was not always smooth, but she never gave up on me, despite my many attempts to run away from it all. I would also like to thank all the members of my committee, Dr. Judy Sund, Dr. Timothy Pugh, and Dr. Cameron McNeil, for their willingness to read my work and assist with revisions. All readers challenged yet strengthened the project. I also greatly benefitted from Dr. Pugh’s course on the Maya and Dr. McNeil’s course Archeology of Sex and Gender. Dr. Pugh revealed much of the complexity of Maya culture; Dr. McNeil greatly expanded the range of questions I’ve learned to ask about the past. Mr. Michel Besson also provided keen proof-reading, catching minutiae with eagle eyes. I also extend my thanks to curators Nancy Rosoff of the Brooklyn Museum of Art and Registrar Pilar Ríos of the Museo de Arte de Lima for facilitating access to their Paracas Collections in New York and Lima, respectively. Travel grants awarded by The CUNY Doctoral Student’s Research Council, The CUNY Center for Caribbean, Latin American, and Latino Studies, and the SUNY Fashion Institute of Technology Center for Excellence in Teaching made travel to Peru possible. vii Assistant Art History Program Officer Andrea Appel deserves much credit keeping The Graduate Center art history office running smoothly, with always a kind word for students. My thanks also go to the staff of The Mina Rees Library at The CUNY Graduate Center, The New York Public Library, and The Robert Goldwater Library at the Metropolitan Museum of Art for facilitating local research. Regards and admiration are extended to my colleagues in Pre-Columbian and Colonial studies at The Graduate Center, Lawrence Waldron, Renee McGarry, Nandi Cohen, Miguel Arisa, Jeremy George, Ellie Fitzpatrick Sifford, Lorena Tezanos, and Megan Leight, who provided stellar examples, comic relief, and encouragement throughout my years of graduate study. Numerous friends and colleagues have also shared helpful feedback on my project and the trials of the dissertation process: Pam Street, Anna Blume, Katie Hanson, Nicole Fennimore, Whitney Thompson, Monica Steinberg, Diana Fischman, Hyewon Yi, and Elsie Heung – thank you, all. I also thank my grandmother, EO, for financial assistance, and my family, Mom, Dad, David, Jessie, and Javier, for love and support along the long journey through graduate school. viii For my grandmother, Elizabeth Miller Reutlinger, a remarkable woman and superb textile artist For Xavier Atletl “Pinguino” Barajas, my baby bird For the people of the Andes, past, present, and future For the birds ix CONTENTS ABSTRACT………………………………………………………. .................................................... iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……….…………………………………....…….…. .............................. vi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS…………...............……………………………….....….….……xi INTRODUCTION…………………………………………...............……. .............................. 1 The Dissertation Project and its Aims Proposed Contributions The Andean Ecological Triad: Desert, Mountains, Rainforest Historicizing Andean Culture The Role of Peruvian Archeologists The Paracas Realm: Ocean and Desert Discovery and Excavation of Paracas Mummy Bundles Burial Artifacts Paracas Textiles Previous Literature Methodology and Basis for Research Outline of the Dissertation CHAPTER 1 AN IMPROBABLE ECOSYSTEM…. .............................................. 50 Something Rich and Strange Humans and Birds The Paracas Ecosystem Fauna in The Paracas Environment Paracas: “A Kingdom of Birds and Waves” Ecology in Paracas Art: An Introduction CHAPTER 2 ANIMALS IN THE MIND………................................................…..85 Bird into Image: A Long Process Animals in the Mind I: Jungian Archetypes Animals in the Mind II: Structuralism Animals in the Mind III: Cultural Critic John Berger Animals in the Mind IV: Biophilia Animals in the Mind V: Evolutionary Psychology Animals in the Mind VI: Evolutionary Aesthetics CHAPTER 3 EARLY BIRDS………………………………………. .................... 112 The Art of Birds The Natural World as Metaphor Early Andeans: Coastal Journeys and Shared Landscapes Early Mummies: Chinchorros x The Earliest Birds: Huaca Prieta Chavín: Site and Architecture Chavín: Stones, Style, and Birds CHAPTER 4 PARACAS BIRDS. ............................................................................. 143 Making Meaning from Birds Uses of Ethnographic Analogy Waldron and Zoomorphic Iconography Birds in Narratives Birds From Chavín to Paracas Early Birds in Ceramic Vessels Early Birds in Textiles: Oculate Being The Double-Headed Bird Birds of Prey Condors Falcons Seabirds Inca Terns Cormorants Land Birds Nightjars Hummingbirds Supernatural Birds Bird Costumes CHAPTER 5 GENDERED FEATHERS. ................................................................... 195 The Spectacle of Paracas Male Attire The Bowerbird: Sexual Selection in Birds Contest and Display: Sexual Selection in Humans Feathers and Materiality Material Culture in Chiefdoms: Expressions of Power Paracas Featherwork Ocucaje Featherwork Nasca Featherwork Late Intermediate and Late Horizon Featherwork Aztec Feathers: Ornaments of Hypermasculinity