3 ❖ Overview of Developmental Theories Looking at Humans Over Time erhaps the most widely used conceptual approaches to describing and explaining P human activity, appearance, and experience are developmental. From word soup, we ladle the following synonyms for the term development: expansion, elaboration, growth, evolution, unfolding, opening, maturing, maturation, maturity, ripeness (Dictionary.com, n.d.). Drawing 3.1 Developmental Theories Word Soup 35 36 ❖ SECTION II THEORIES THAT DESCRIBE AND EXPLAIN Inherent in each of these words is movement or growth on a hierarchy from diminutive to grand, from immature to mature, and so forth. Reflecting positive movement, developmental theories have typically been referred to as stage, phase, life course theories, and, more recently, developmental science (Damon & Lerner, 2006). Initial theories of human development were concerned with how individuals unfold in an orderly and sequential fashion. However, over the past several decades, human development has expanded beyond looking at the passage of the individual through time to positioning human function and capability within comparative hierarchical frameworks. We discuss all of these approaches within the genre of developmental theories, noting that they have different scopes and foci, but contain commonalities. What unites all of them is the role of “development” depicted as degree of maturation or directional movement as descriptive and explanatory of humans, their interac- tions, and their contexts. Some developmental theories posit specific stages through which individual humans or entities pass and must negotiate, while others see chron- ological maturation as a fluid process without discrete identifiable boundaries that delineate the boundaries of entrance and exit from one state into the next. Selected developmental theories focus on processes proximal to humans, while others look at the interaction of multiple factors to describe and explain maturation and function- ing of humans. Still others look at human functioning within large distal contexts such as nation-states. Of the many theorists who have suggested that passage through stages is an impor- tant factor in explaining human phenomena, Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) may be the most famous developmental theorist. In a sense, Freud may be viewed as an intellectual pioneer in that he departed from moral explanations for atypical human experience advanced by his contemporaries such as von Krafft Ebing (1840–1902). But, Freud is only one of many theorists who have looked at sequential, hierarchical unfolding as important to understanding human description, change, and comparison. Looking further back in the history of developmental theory (Mosher, Youngman, & Day, 2006), Adolphe Quetelet (1796–1874) has actually been hailed for his significant contribution to under- standing human phenomena chronologically. Other important early theorists include Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746–1827), William James (1842–1910), G. Stanley Hall (1844–1924), Alfred Binet (1857–1911), John Dewey (1859–1952), George Herbert Mead (1863–1931), and Charlotte Malachowski Buhler (1893–1974) (Mosher, Youngman, & Day, 2006). Unfortunately, these important theorists developed their work in isolation from one another and it was not until the early to mid-20th century that a seminal body of human developmental theory coalesced and then expanded to human flourishing in the late 20th century (Nussbaum & Sen, 1993). According to Damon and Lerner (2006), early theories following human matura- tion over longitudinal time were primarily located in singular disciplines such as devel- opmental psychology, motor development, and so forth. More recently, however, and in concert with postmodern and post-postmodern thinking, developmental theories have been renamed developmental science, capabilities, and so forth, indicating their interdisciplinarity with claims supported by systematic inquiry as well as institutional and even global evidence. Chapter 3 Overview of Developmental Theories ❖ 37 Given the breadth of developmental theories and the large scope of topical concern, and building on Thomas’s (2001) taxonomy, we parse these theories into two categories, grand and specific, with important distinctions. Distinguishing Between Grand and Specific Theories Grand and specific theories are concerned with human movement and growth. Although not directly addressed in most theories, a hierarchy from least to most desirable— whether expressed as immature to mature, limited to fully developed, and so forth—is implicit in developmental theories. Grand theories focus on and treat human phenomena holistically. That is to say, the unit of analysis is the whole person moving through time or context, and more recently, due to the erosion of dualism, contexts as elements of human functioning have been included in theories of human development. For example, Sigmund Freud and Erik H. Erikson (1902–1994), treated human growth and development as the total unfolding of an individual while Martha Nussbaum (2000) characterizes optimal human flourishing as an economic resource phenomenon linked to the degrees of freedom, so to speak, to access and actualize basic resources. These broad hierarchical theories, originating from roots in resource economics, concern themselves with the rank ordering of health and welfare on the basis of human functioning within entities including geographies such as nation-states (Klugman, 2009; Nussbaum & Sen, 2009). Although not typically dis- cussed as theories of human development, we partially locate and discuss them in this category because of the moniker their own authors attribute to them, human develop- ment and capabilities, as well as their adherence to the axioms of this genre. Human development and capabilities theories are also discussed within new and emerging theories because they cross over into interdisciplinary postmodern thinking about humans in context. Specific theories direct their focus to a narrow embodied domain, such as cogni- tion, motor development, moral development, neurological development, genetics, psychological development, multisystemic development, and so forth. Because of the enormity of literature, all of the theories and ideas cannot be criti- cally examined in a single text. We have selected those that represent their categories and provide sufficient breadth and depth for illustration, analysis, use, and, of course, extrapolation. Table 3.1 lists the theories and ideas discussed throughout the book and locates them within the categories of grand and specific approaches. THINKING POINT Think of other examples of grand and specific developmental theories. Compare them for scope and use in informing professional action. 38 ❖ SECTION II THEORIES THAT DESCRIBE AND EXPLAIN Table 3.1 The Location of Developmental Theories Grand Developmental Theories Specific Developmental Theories Psychoanalysis (Freud) Cognitive development (Piaget, Case, Ego psychology (Erikson) Goldberg) Analytical psychology (Jung) Moral development (Kohlberg) Adult development (Levinson, Gould, Physical development (Gesell, Ashbaugh) L’Abate, Strauch) Spiritual development (Fowler) Culture (Wexler) Death and dying (Kübler-Ross) Human development and capabilities Neurobiology (Wexler) (Sen, Nussbaum) Historically, the developmental approaches that address individual human unfolding over time have spanned the chronological domain from birth to death. However, currently, with elongated technological, spiritual, biological, and contextual gazes, “prebirth” and “postmortem” description and explanations have nudged their way into more traditional “womb to tomb” theories of individual human development. We defer our discussions of the prenatal and postmortem human, conditions that precede formal birth and succeed formal death, and definition of nations, govern- ments, and contexts to other chapters, as they fit more comfortably under other genres in our taxonomy. Thus, Chapters 4 and 5 enter the world of developmental theory from infancy through old age. Chapter 4 begins the discussion of the hierarchical growth elements of human development and capability theory. Developmental Theory Axioms Before examining and illustrating the application of grand and specific approaches to human development, Table 3.2 identifies the axioms that delimit and guide our analysis. As illustrated in the axioms, to a large extent, developmental theories advance the ideas that underpin many areas of our lives. They tell us what to expect as we reach certain ages, what not to expect, what our government is likely to afford us according to the level of development of a nation, what distinguishes one developmental group from another, and the nature of maturity. Moreover, these theories provide the explanatory basis for typical and atypical unfolding of an entity from its birth through death or origin through elimination. As such, we establish and evaluate indi- vidual lives, groups, governments, and even nations according to expectations of movement and change throughout their time spans; we compare single cases to theo- rized expectations, and determine the extent to which cases fit or do not fit within a Chapter 3 Overview of Developmental Theories ❖ 39 Table 3.2 Developmental Theory Axioms 1. Developmental approaches are based on how individual humans and human entities grow, mature, and compare to one another. Thus, these theories are explicitly or implicitly concerned with the hierarchical process of aging even if they