THE LAWFULNESS OF CANADIAN INTERDICTION OF STATELESS VESSELS ON THE HIGH SEAS IN COUNTER-NARCOTICS AND COUNTER-TERRORISM OPERATIONS Major B. Clute JCSP 40 PCEMI 40 Master of Defence Studies Maîtrise en études de la défense Disclaimer Avertissement Opinions expressed remain those of the author and do Les opinons exprimées n’engagent que leurs auteurs et not represent Department of National Defence or ne reflètent aucunement des politiques du Ministère de Canadian Forces policy. This paper may not be used la Défense nationale ou des Forces canadiennes. Ce without written permission. papier ne peut être reproduit sans autorisation écrite. © Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada, as represented by the © Sa Majesté la Reine du Chef du Canada, représentée par le Minister of National Defence, 2015. ministre de la Défense nationale, 2015. CANADIAN FORCES COLLEGE – COLLÈGE DES FORCES CANADIENNES JCSP 40 – PCEMI 40 2013 – 2014 MASTER OF DEFENCE STUDIES – MAÎTRISE EN ÉTUDES DE LA DÉFENSE THE LAWFULNESS OF CANADIAN INTERDICTION OF STATELESS VESSELS ON THE HIGH SEAS IN COUNTER-NARCOTICS AND COUNTER-TERRORISM OPERATIONS By Major B. Clute “This paper was written by a student “La présente étude a été rédigée par attending the Canadian Forces College un stagiaire du Collège des Forces in fulfilment of one of the requirements canadiennes pour satisfaire à l'une des of the Course of Studies. The paper is a exigences du cours. L'étude est un scholastic document, and thus contains document qui se rapporte au cours et facts and opinions, which the author contient donc des faits et des opinions alone considered appropriate and que seul l'auteur considère appropriés correct for the subject. It does not et convenables au sujet. Elle ne reflète necessarily reflect the policy or the pas nécessairement la politique ou opinion of any agency, including the l'opinion d'un organisme quelconque, y Government of Canada and the compris le gouvernement du Canada et Canadian Department of National le ministère de la Défense nationale du Defence. This paper may not be Canada. Il est défendu de diffuser, de released, quoted or copied, except with citer ou de reproduire cette étude sans the express permission of the Canadian la permission expresse du ministère de Department of National Defence.” la Défense nationale.” Word Count: 21 386 Compte de mots : 21 386 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................... …3 CHAPTER I - INTRODUCTION ................................................................................... 4 Operation Enduring Freedom and the Maritime Component ................................. 4 What is the Nature of this Type of Operation ............................................................ 6 The Need for a Legal Basis ......................................................................................... 15 CHAPTER II- INTERNATIONAL LAW .................................................................... 20 Jurisdiction .................................................................................................................. 21 Law of the Sea ............................................................................................................. 30 Nationality, Freedom of the High Seas and its Exceptions ...................................... 30 Ships Without Nationality ......................................................................................... 34 Other Powers of Enforcement under UNCLOS ........................................................ 36 UNLCOS: Narcotics and Terrorism ......................................................................... 38 The UN Narcotics Convention .................................................................................. 40 Jurisdiction Over the High Seas ............................................................................... 44 United States Approach to Drugs on the High Seas ................................................. 48 Jurisdiction Over the Vessel, the Cargo and Persons On Board ............................. 56 Conclusion Regarding Law of the Sea ...................................................................... 66 International Human Rights Law and the Use of Force ......................................... 70 CHAPTER III - CANADIAN DOMESTIC LAW ....................................................... 85 Crown Prerogative ...................................................................................................... 86 Mandate of the Canadian Armed Forces.................................................................. 92 2 Crown Prerogative in this Operation ........................................................................ 97 Statutory Authority .................................................................................................... 99 A Basis in Canadian Law for this Operation? ....................................................... 106 Conclusion Regarding Canadian Domestic Law ................................................... 110 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................. 112 BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................................................................................................... 118 3 ABSTRACT The Canadian Armed Forces (CAF) is boarding suspected stateless vessels in the Arabian Sea region in order to locate and destroy smuggled narcotics. The stated goal of this operation is to keep drugs off Canadian streets and eliminate a purported source of criminal and terrorist financing. This CAF operation, like any other, must be based in international law and Canadian domestic law. Yet, this operation may lack a legal basis. Such a deficiency would be contrary to the rule of law and increase legal risk to the Government and CAF members. Examining this issue is the purpose of this inquiry. International law permits warships to visit and search suspected stateless vessels in order to verify their status but it does not explicitly allow for counter-narcotics or counter-terrorism activities. However, because narcotics are universally unlawful, international law likely does not prohibit the seizure and destruction of these drugs from stateless vessels, but such enforcement action will almost certainly give rise to human rights obligations in respect of the persons on such a vessel. In domestic law, this operation is undertaken based on Government executive authority, or the Crown prerogative. This is a sound basis to visit and inspect stateless vessels. However, the prerogative can be displaced or restricted when a statute occupies the “same ground.” This appears to be the case regarding the CAF’s search for, and seizure and disposal of, narcotics. The Criminal Code, in limited circumstances, provides for enforcement action against narcotics trafficking and terrorism outside of Canada but it does not authorize the counter-narcotics and counter-terrorism activities currently being undertaken. This gives rise to concerns regarding the lawfulness of this CAF operation. 4 CHAPTER I - INTRODUCTION Operation Enduring Freedom and the Maritime Component In October 2001, the United States established Combined Task Force 150 (CTF-150) which was given responsibility for maritime security and counter-terrorism operations in the Arabian Sea and the surrounding region.1 The main task of CTF-150 is conducting visit, board, search and seizures in respect of vessels suspected of involvement in activity related to terrorism or transporting weapons or other illicit cargo. This Task Force is currently part of Operation Enduring Freedom or OEF, launched in response to the terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001 on the United States (the U.S.). 2 The legal basis for OEF was, and remains, the national right of self-defence as enshrined in Article 51 of the Charter of the United Nations (the UN Charter).3 Since the early days of the “war on terror,” Canada has contributed a warship to OEF. Canada’s contribution was first under Operation Apollo, followed by Operation Altair and now, Operation Artemis.4 This Operation commenced in 2012 and is the Canadian Armed Forces’ (CAF) participation in maritime security and counter-terrorism operations in the Arabian Sea. According to CAF information, the Canadian warship participating in Operation Artemis will detect, deter and protect against terrorist activity by patrolling and conducting maritime security operations in her area of responsibility.5 In what can be gleaned from the press, the primary activity conducted is searching for “illicit cargo” and specifically, narcotics that are believed to 1 Arabian Sea, Gulf of Aden, Gulf of Oman, Red Sea, and the northwest quadrant of the Indian Ocean. 2 Website of Combined Maritime Forces, last accessed 4 March 2014, http://combinedmaritimeforces.com/ctf-150-maritime-security/. 3 Dominic McGoldrick, From 9-11 to the Iraq War 2003 (Oxford: Hart Publishing, 2004), 10-11. 4 Rear-Admiral Bob Davidson, “Modern Naval Diplomacy – A Practitioner’s View,” Journal of Military and Strategic Studies 11, no. 1 and 2 (Fall and Winter 2008/9): 4, last accessed 14 April 2014, http://www.jmss.org/jmss/index.php/jmss/article/viewFile/80/90. 5 Website, CAF Current Operations Abroad, Operation Artemis, last accessed, 15 December 2013, http://www.forces.gc.ca/en/operations-abroad-current/op-artemis.page. 5 be funding terrorist organizations.6 However, a CAF news article from 2013 states that boarding