THE ROLE OF ISLAM IN INDONESIA’S CONTEMPORARY FOREIGN POLICY Mohamad Zakaria Al-Anshori A Thesis Submitted to the Victoria University of Wellington in Fulfilment of the Requirement for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Political Science and International Relations Victoria University of Wellington 2016 ABSTRACT This study aims to investigate the extent to which Islam influences Indonesian foreign policy in the post-Suharto era. Specifically, this research intends to examine under what circumstances the influence of Islam on Indonesian foreign policy will be substantial and under what conditions it will have less of an effect. Focusing on the era of the administration of President Yudhoyono, the issues covered in this study embrace Indonesia’s policies towards Iran’s nuclear programme, Kosovo’s independence and Palestinian statehood. This study puts emphasis on the interplay between Muslim groups and the government in relation to the conduct of the country’s foreign policy. As interest groups, Muslim groups in Indonesia have had significant concerns about Muslim issues in both Indonesia’s domestic affairs and in its foreign policy. In general, this study argues that there has been an increased role for Islam in Indonesia’s post-Suharto foreign policy. Islamic elements and Muslim groups’ aspirations have been increasingly included and accommodated in the country’s foreign policy. These accommodations are made to the extent that the aspirations these views reflect do not contradict fundamentally with Pancasila as state philosophy, the 1945 constitution and the country’s vital national interests, mainly those related to territorial integrity. Specifically, the case of the Iranian nuclear programme has showed that the government ‘bowed’ to the Muslim groups’ pressures which were backed by the parliament. The government changed its position from supporting UNSC resolution 1747 on sanctions against Iran to abstaining on the similar resolution no. 1803. In this regard, the influence of Muslim groups on the country’s foreign policy was important and substantial as Muslim groups’ interests and members of parliament’s interests did converge against the government’s policy on that matter. The Kosovo case has demonstrated an opposite effect. The government apparently firmed up its non-recognition of Kosovo’s independence and disregarded Muslim groups’ aspirations. Muslim groups’ aspiration to recognise Kosovo’s independence is i perceived to contradict the most vital of the country’s national interest, namely national integrity. Finally, the case of Palestinian statehood has showed that the Indonesian government’s policy and Muslim groups’ aspirations have been aligned (unlike their differences over Iran) with a similar voice being presented. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Many people have lent their incredible help and assistance in many different ways throughout my PhD journey. I have been privileged to have Professor Robert Ayson as my primary supervisor. I benefited greatly from his expertise, clear guidance and supervision, analytical thinking and sharpness, meticulous, careful and critical reading, and constructive, detailed and deep comments which were very beneficial in constructing and sharpening my thesis. He has always showed endless patience and encouragement, excellent support and invaluable advice throughout writing this thesis. I do not think that words are sufficient in expressing my great gratitude and appreciation to him. Without his continued guidance and invaluable help, the completion of this thesis would have been impossible. I am also greatly indebted to my secondary supervisor, Associate Professor David Capie, for his invaluable guidance and supervision, encouragement and expertise as well as critical comments of my drafts which enabled me to complete this thesis. I am very fortunate to have such a solid and strong supervisory team for my thesis. It has been a delight to have had this relationship with two superb professors, which I believe is a wonderful part of my destiny in life. My study would also have been impossible without support from my institution, the Indonesian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. I should also take this opportunity to convey my sincere appreciation to Ambassador Agus Sriyono and Ambassador Jose Tavarez, Pak Fery and Bu Ella, Pak Wanton and Bu Shinta, Mas Ali and Mbak Fina, Mbak Muniroh, Pak Budi and Bu Wiwin, Pak Agam and Bu Dewi, all other staff, and the large family of the Indonesian Embassy in Wellington. I would like to convey my greatest gratitude to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade in New Zealand for granting me the New Zealand ASEAN Scholars Award, which enabled me to study at Victoria University of Wellington for more than three and a half years. I am particularly grateful to Dr Helena Cook, NZAID Scholarship Coordinator at Victoria International. I would also like to thank the Student Learning team at VUW, especially Madeleine Collinge and Karren Commons; and Rebecca McKeown for their valuable assistance with my English language improvement. iii I received assistance and help during my six-month field research in Indonesia. I would like to thank the participants of my in-depth interviews and all my connections and contacts at the MAPK (Senior High School) in Jember, Muslim Student Association (HMI), Piramida Circle Study Club, NU, Muhammadiyah, and Indonesian Ministry of Foreign Affairs which made my field research easy to do. Though I interviewed a number of people, Iwould like to mention a few of them particular, namely Jusuf Kalla, Indonesian Vice President (2004-2009) and (2014-2019), N. Hassan Wirajuda, Indonesian Foreign Minister (2002-2004) and (2004-2009), K.H. Said Agil Siraj (NU’s chairman), K.H. Hasyim Muzadi (NU’s former chairman), Abdul Mu’ti (Muhammadiyah), Rizal Sukma (CSIS), Dwi Fortuna Anwar (LIPI), Azyumardy Azra (State Islamic University –UIN) Jakarta), as well as the politicians and members of parliament from PKS, PKB, PPP, PAN and Golkar, and journalists. I have no idea how to express my feelings to my family. My wife, Uli Artati and my daughter, Salma Safira Ainun Naima are always my sources of strength and spirit for my life. My deepest thanks and gratitude are devoted to my father, Drs. HM. Syuhada, mother Hj. Siti Nafsiyah, and to my parents-in-law. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................. i ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ........................................................................................... iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................. v GLOSSARY ............................................................................................................. viii CHAPTER ONE : INTRODUCTION .......................................................................... 1 1. Background ....................................................................................................... 1 2. Literature Review .............................................................................................. 3 2.1. Foreign policy formation ............................................................................ 3 2.2. Religion and foreign policy ......................................................................... 8 2.3. Islam and foreign policy of Muslim states ................................................. 12 2.4. Islam in Indonesia’s foreign policy ........................................................... 19 3. Research methodology ..................................................................................... 23 3.1. Case selection ........................................................................................... 25 3.2. Data collection and analysis ...................................................................... 26 3.2.2. Primary and secondary written documents ................................................. 27 3.2.3. Interviews .................................................................................................. 27 4. Time limitation ............................................................................................... 28 5. Thesis structure ............................................................................................... 28 CHAPTER TWO : ISLAM AND INDONESIAN DOMESTIC POLITICS ................ 31 1. Introduction ..................................................................................................... 31 2. The Dutch policy on Islam and the emergence of a Muslim nationalist movement ............................................................................................................... 32 3. The power struggle between secular nationalists and Muslim nationalists ........ 36 4. The suppression of political Islam .................................................................... 38 5. The Cultural Islam and Muslims’ political rapprochement with Suharto .......... 43 6. Islam and politics in Indonesia’s democratic era: Pre-Yudhoyono era .............. 49 7. Islam and politics in Indonesia’s democratic era: TheYudhoyono era............... 52 8. Conclusion....................................................................................................... 60 CHAPTER THREE : THE ROLE OF ISLAM IN INDONESIA’S POST-SUHARTO FOREIGN POLICY ................................................................................................... 62 1. Introduction ....................................................................................................