Ackerman, B.B., T.P. Hemker, F.G. Lindzey, and A.J. Button. 1981. Cougar Numbers in the Henry Mountains, Utah. Encyclia 58:57-62. In 1978, Utah had the largest harvest of any state with a reported harvest of 236 cougars which was 22% of the national total. The Henry Mountains, an isolated, desert mountain range located in south-central Utah, was closed to hunting in April, 1975 in anticipation of the cougar study. Five kinds of cougar sign were searched for: tracks, scratches, female scat mounds, kills, and incidental scats. One of the most easily found sign was scratches (scrapes) in the substrate made by the forefeet of the male. Females often bury their scats in mounds of needles and soil and were usually found under trees and were often associated with kills of large prey. Cougar scats were usually identifiable because of their large size, presence of considerable hair and bone fragments, and greenish-grey color. Initially only three sets of tracks were found during 10 man- days in July and September, 1978. Between November 1 and December 20, 1978, seventy man-days of effort was expended looking for cougar sign. Ten sets of cougar tracks, two female scat mounds, and two rabbit kills were found. It was concluded that 2-3 adult cougars inhabited the Henry Mountains during the census period. The study was moved to the Boulder-Escalante Mountains in January 1979, where cougars used home areas of 300 to 900 km2, which was larger than reported in most other regions, possibly due to differences in terrain or prey density. The growth of these cougar populations is probably slow due to the reliance of individual immigration over large expanses of unsuitable habitat. Ackerman, B.B. 1982. Cougar Predation and Ecological Energetics in Southern Utah. M.S. Thesis, Utah State Univ., Logan. 103pp. Diet of cougars (Felis concolor) was studied from December 1978 to August 1981, on a 4500 km2 study area near Escalante, Utah. Prey eaten was determined from analysis of 112 animals consumed as prey, and from 239 cougar scats. Mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) were the major prey item, comprising 81% of biomass consumed. Lagamorphs, large rodents and smaller predators were also important components. Cattle comprised less than 1% of the diet, although commonly grazed on the cougar's summer range. Adult male and juvenile (less than 1 year) mule deer were killed more often than expected, in fall (P < 0.10) and in winter (P < 0.001). Older deer were also taken more than expected (P < 0.005). Cougars were a major cause of mortality of mule deer (41% of all adult female deaths, 35% of the male), but only 6% of mortality of juveniles. Selection of prey seemed to be a function of prey vulnerability, rather than one of active choice by the predator. Motion-sensitive radio-transmitters were placed on 15 cougars, from 3 months to 7-9 years of age. Three parameters of the radio signal were used to determine activity levels during 6483 1-minute sampling periods: number of changes in pulse rate, predominant pulse mode, and signal integrity, based on 308 minutes of "known" activity. Cougars showed distinct crepuscular (sunrise, sunset ± 2 hours) activity peaks (P < 0.001). Proportion of time active was less at night than during crepuscular periods (P < 0.001), but greater than during daylight (P < 0.001). The 1 adult male was more active than females with older cubs, both of which were more active than female with smaller cubs and small cubs. Estimates of energetic costs of basal metabolism, and of activity, growth, and reproduction were used in a predictive model of energy cost of free-existence. Information on dietary composition, live weight and energy content of prey animals, and assimilation efficiencies were used to provide estimates of the frequency at which deer were killed (deer/day) and consumed (kg/day). Single adults were estimated to kill 1 deer per 8-16 days. Females with 3 large cubs would kill 1 deer as often as every 2-3 days. A known population of 8 adult cougars was predicted to consume 417 deer per year. Ackerman, B.B., F.G. Lindzey and T.P. Hemker. 1984. Cougar Food Habits in Southern Utah. J. Wildl. Manage. 48(1):147- 155. Diets of cougars (Felis concolor) were studied from December 1978 to August 1981, on a 4,500 km2 study area near Escalante, Utah. Prey eaten by cougars was estimated from analysis of 112 animals consumed as prey and from 239 cougar scats. Composition of diet was corrected based on feeding trials using captive cougars. Mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) were found to be the major prey item, 81% of biomass consumed. Lagomorphs, large rodents and smaller predators were also important components of the diet. Cattle comprised less than 1% of the diet, although they were abundant on the cougars' summer range. Age structure of deer killed by cougars indicated that older (>7 years) deer were killed more often than expected (P< 0.005). Ackerman, B.B., F.G. Lindzey, and T.P. Hemker. 1986. Predictive Energetics Model for Cougars. In Cats of the World: Biology, Conservation, and Management, S.D. Miller and D. Everett (eds.). National Wildlife Federation, Wash. D.C. A predictive model was developed to estimate required energy intake and number of prey animals consumed by free-ranging cougars (Felis concolor). Activity data for input into the model were provided by monitoring 15 radio-transmittered cougars between April, 1979 and September, 1980. Activity samples were placed in 1 of 3 activity classes, using a discriminant function based on simultaneous visual and radio signal observations. Costs of growth and reproduction were added to the cost of activity to predict age- and sex-specific energy needs. Predicted biomass of prey required was higher than published estimates derived from captive cougars. The predicted frequency of kills of large prey, however, agreed with frequencies reported by others from field observations. The predicted interval between kills of mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) was: 8- 11 days for a resident male, 14-17 days for a resident female, and 3.3 days for a female with 3, 13-month-old cubs. Total energy requirements of a cougar population are largely dependent on its sex and age composition. Changes in composition may alter the effect of the cougar population on its prey. Adams, R.B., L.A. Harveson, P.B. Robertson, M.E. Tewes and J.D. Hillje. 2003. Reproduction and Dispersal of Mountain Lions in Southern Texas. Page 52 in L. A. Harveson, P. M. Harveson, and R.W. Adams, eds. Proceedings of the Sixth Mountain Lion Workshop. Austin. Texas. Abstract In Texas, mountain lions (Puma concolor) are considered non-game animals and may be harvested throughout the year. Due to this status it is important for researchers to understand reproduction and dispersal characteristics of mountain lions if viable populations are desired. Data were collected regarding kitten/subadult mountain lion dispersal and reproduction in southern Texas from 1993-2000. Researchers observed/monitored 9 female kittens and 7 male kittens. Four subadult male and 5 subadult female mountain lions were collared and monitored, and dispersed at <13 months; male dispersal distances ranged from 9.40-53.8 km and female dispersal distances ranged from 6.30-23.1 km, and typically followed primary (rivers) or secondary (creeks) waterways to new habitats. The average home range size was 203.7km2 and 315.7km2 for females and males, respectively. Of the 16 litters produced over the study period, 6.25% occurred during the spring, 31.25% occurred during the summer, 25.00% occurred during the fall, and 37.50% occurred during the winter. Fourteen dispersals by 9 subadults occurred during the study with 43% of the dispersals occurring in the fall, 29% occurring during the winter, 21% during the spring, and 7% in the summer months. Knowledge of this information could be useful for determining future management needs. Adams, R.B., J.C. Pitman, and L.A. Harveson. 2006. Texas Tortoise (Gopherus berlandier) Consumed by a Mountain Lion (Puma concolor) in Southern Texas. The Southwestern Naturalist 51(4):581-582. Abstract Mountain lions (Puma concolor), throughout their distribution, eat a variety of prey, but primarily consume large prey (e.g., cervids). While monitoring radio-collared mountain lions, we saw a mountain lion kitten consuming a Texas tortoise (Gopherus berlandieri). Small prey might increase survival of young mountain lions developing predation skills required for solitary survival as adults. Akenson, J., M. Henjum and T. Craddock. 1997. Diurnal Bedding Habitat of Mountain Lions in Northeast Oregon. Page 84 in W.D. Padley, ed., Proc. Fifth Mountain Lion Workshop: 27 February- 1 March 1996; San Diego, California. Abstract We initiated an evaluation of diurnal habitat use by mountain lions (Puma concolor) in Northeast Oregon. From 1992 to 1994 we completed 61 habitat plots at diurnal bed sites. We compared 32 winter and 29 summer habitat plots with 30 random plots. We described the structural composition of microhabitat features within a 50 meter radius surrounding the lion beds. Five lions were fitted with activity sensing transmitters to determine when a lion was at rest. We used a specially trained hound to document actual bed sites. In winter and summer, lions used forested rimrock for bedding in greater proportion than indicated available by random plots (P<0.05). There were significantly more downed logs present in summer plots than random plots (P<0.05). All habitat plots had either forested rock structure, downed logs, or both. Results suggest that lions need both vertical and horizontal cover components to feel secure enough to bed.