Loyal and Elegant Subjects of the Sublime State: Headgear and the Multiple Dimensions of Modernizing/‐ed Ottoman Identity Dissertation zur Erlangung des philosophischen Doktorgrades an der Philosophischen Fakultät der Georg-August-Universität Göttingen vorgelegt von Katja Jana aus Fulda Göttingen 2016 1. Gutachter/in: Prof. Dr. Rebekka Habermas 2. Gutachter/in: Prof. Dr. Christoph Herzog Table of Contents Table of Figures........................................................................................................................................v Note on Transliteration, Transcription and Dates.........................................................................vi Acknowledgements..............................................................................................................................vii 1 Introduction.........................................................................................................................................1 1.1 Modernities....................................................................................................................................4 1.2 The Significance of the Study of Modern Bourgeois Dress............................................10 1.2.1 History and Meaning of the Hat ..................................................................................11 1.2.2 Globalization of Male Attire and the Production of Modern Bodies...................16 1.3 Dress and Bourgeois Identity..................................................................................................18 1.3.1 Modernity and Bourgeois Identity................................................................................20 1.3.2 Masculinity and the History of the Body ...................................................................24 1.4 State of Research........................................................................................................................28 1.4.1 Ottoman and Turkish Politics of Dress.......................................................................28 1.4.1.1 Ottoman Headgear...............................................................................................33 1.4.2 The Turkish Hat Law.......................................................................................................35 1.5 Sources..........................................................................................................................................38 1.6 Outline..........................................................................................................................................38 2 Ottoman Modernity and Bourgeois Culture: The Era of the Fez.........................................41 2.1 Ottoman Empire and the Postcolonial Debate..................................................................42 2.2 Concepts of the West and Multiple Modernities..............................................................55 2.3 The Making of Bourgeois Identity and Modernization in the Ottoman Empire and Beyond.........................................................................................................................................63 2.4 The Fez and Modernization of Dress...................................................................................71 2.4.1 Resistance against the Fez?..........................................................................................80 2.4.2 The Fez and Ottoman Non-Muslims..........................................................................81 3 Politics of Identity during the Hamidian Period......................................................................86 3.1 Headgear of Employees of Foreign Companies in the Ottoman Empire...................88 3.2 Fez-Wearing Obligation for Ottoman Christians..............................................................91 3.3 Outlawed Variations of the Fez..............................................................................................93 3.4 Sanctions against Unauthorized Muslim Dress..................................................................95 3.5 Hats On- and Off-Stage............................................................................................................95 ii 3.5.1 The Case of Ezine Orman Katibi Mehmed Efendi....................................................96 3.6 Headgear and Citizenship: Reji Kolcusu Şükrü ..............................................................102 3.7 Territoriality and Dress.........................................................................................................103 3.7.1 Eastern Rumelia...............................................................................................................104 3.8 Clothing and National Belonging in Ottoman Non-Muslim and Foreign Mission Schools.......................................................................................................................................121 3.8.1 Non-Muslim Ottoman Schools and Missionary Schools .....................................134 3.9 Concluding Remarks on Territoriality and Borderlands...............................................138 4 The Gender of Modernity and Ottoman Dress......................................................................143 4.1 Modern Masculinity and Dress...........................................................................................145 4.1.1 Uniformity and Bourgeois Dress...............................................................................148 4.2 The Globalization of Modern Male Attire and European Colonialism.....................158 4.2.1 The Emergence and Spread of the Three-Piece Suit.............................................158 4.2.2 Adoption of and Distancing from Local Dress by European Colonizers........163 4.2.3 Sola Topi, Fez and Top Hat.........................................................................................164 4.2.4 National Costume versus Civilized Dress?..............................................................167 4.3 The Spread of Mass Produced Dress in the Ottoman Empire......................................171 4.4 Gender and Women's Dress in the Late Ottoman Empire............................................174 4.4.1 Urban Jungles and Bourgeois Homes........................................................................176 4.4.2 Sexuality............................................................................................................................180 4.5 Is there an Ottoman Dandy?.................................................................................................182 4.5.1 Late Ottoman Masculinities.........................................................................................191 5 After the Young Turk Coup d'Etat: National versus Modern Hats?.................................196 5.1 Young Turk Coup d'Etat and its Implications on the Politics of Identity and Difference.................................................................................................................................197 5.2 Ottoman Railway Employees, Dress and State Power...................................................206 5.3 The Fez Boycott and the Question of National Headgear............................................210 5.3.1 The Boycott in Ottoman Newspaper and Journal Articles..................................213 5.3.2 The Fez Boycott in State Documents and the Appearance of the Kalpak as an Item of Ottoman Identity..............................................................................................227 5.4 Children and Heads of Households: Contesting Public Spaces..................................230 5.4.1.Nationalism or Participation in Global Community..............................................247 5.5 Conclusions: Politics of Headgear as a Popular Movement and Ottomanism........249 iii 6 National Independence and the Turkish Hat Law.................................................................250 6.1 Representations of Dress and Discussions about Headgear after the Establishment of the Turkish Republic........................................................................................................265 6.2 Şapka İnkılabı - A Hat Revolution?.................................................................................268 6.2.1 Mustafa Kemal's Speeches, the Hat Law and Gender...........................................271 6.2.2 Implementation of the Hat Law: Repercussions of the Hat Law beyond 'Islamist Reaction' and 'Cheerful Adaption'............................................................278 6.2.3 Is Modernity Secular?...................................................................................................281 7 Conclusion – Beyond Westernization: Imagined Communities of Fashion...................291 Bibliography..........................................................................................................................................302 iv Table of Figures Illustration 1: 'Her yiğidin bir yoğurt yiğişi vardır: muhafazakar, terakkiperver, ortacı [Every man has his way of eating yogurt: the conservative, the moderate, the progressive],' Cem (1911) in Orhan Koloğlu, Türkiye Karikatür Tarihi, (İstanbul: Bileşim Yayınevi, 2005), 127. Illustration 2: 'Serpūşlarıñ Dili [The Language of Headgear],' Aydede vol 1, no. 6 (19 Kanun-i Sani 1338 (November 19th, 1922)), 4. Illustration 3: 'Kadıköy İskelesi [Kadıköy Pier],' Aydede, vol 1, no 27, (14 Temmuz 1338 (July 27th, 1922)), 4. Illustration 4: 'Üsküdar