FIGHTING FOR WHITENESS – MINORITY INTERNALIZATION OF AN INSTITUTIONALIZED RACISM IN JOHN OKADA’S NO-NO BOY AND CHESTER HIMES’ IF HE HOLLERS LET HIM GO Amanda Adams-Handy B.A., California State University, Sacramento 2007 THESIS Submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS in ENGLISH (Literature) at CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, SACRAMENTO SPRING 2010 FIGHTING FOR WHITENESS – MINORITY INTERNALIZATION OF AN INSTITUTIONALIZED RACISM IN JOHN OKADA’S NO-NO BOY AND CHESTER HIMES’ IF HE HOLLERS LET HIM GO A Thesis by Amanda Adams-Handy Approved by: _______________________________, Committee Chair Dr. Hellen Lee-Keller _______________________________, Second Reader Dr. Sheree Meyer Date: ___________________________ ii Student: Amanda Adams-Handy I certify that this student has met the requirements for format contained in the University format manual, and that this thesis is suitable for shelving in the Library and credit is to be awarded for this thesis. __________________________, Graduate Coordinator _____________________ Dr. David Toise Date Department of English iii Abstract of FIGHTING FOR WHITENESS – MINORITY INTERNALIZATION OF AN INSTITUTIONALIZED RACISM IN JOHN OKADA’S NO-NO BOY AND CHESTER HIMES’ IF HE HOLLERS LET HIM GO by Amanda Adams-Handy Constructing a system of economic and social power based upon the performance of certain characteristics classified as white, a dominant white group (those who adequately perform the particular characteristics of whiteness) powerfully exerts not only an external control, but also a pivotal internal oppression over groups classified as non- white (i.e. minorities), This internal oppression of minority groups comes in the form of a sociological process called internalization. Through internalization, minority individuals often choose to reject many alternatives to the white system—such as solidarity with other minority groups—and, instead may actually perpetuate the system by imitating its exploitive practices. Within this paper, I explore representations of internalization of white supremacy, as I analyze two novels, John Okada’s No- No Boy (1957) and Chester Himes’ If He Hollers Let Him Go (1945). By pointing out this process of internalizing white supremacy, both Okada and Himes do not merely intend to highlight a depressing and hopeless phenomenon. Instead, both authors offer their readers a warning against the dangers of allowing a racist system of economic power to continue. In addition, both writers also articulate a solution for countering white economic exploitation. That is, Himes and Okada ultimately encourage acting upon the creative alternatives of cooperation and solidarity that minority individuals in each novel formulate. ______________________________, Committee Chair Dr. Hellen Lee-Keller ___________________________ Date iv DEDICATION To Jesus Christ, the only true world-changer and source of perfect love. John 3:16 And to my mom, who showed me what Christ’s love looks like when lived out. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS To my amazing Lord and Savior, Jesus Christ, who has given me all that I need and so much more. To my mom, my best friend and guide. I want to be just like her as I grow up. To my dad, my steady rock no matter what. To my sister Gracie, my personal trainer for life. To my brothers, Spencer, Evan, and Ryan, my bestest buddies. To the Cordova Crew, Ken, Joe, Dan, Erin, Tony, Abbi, Moriyah, and Scarlett, thank you for adopting me, loving on me, and giving me a place to rest when I feel spent. To Sheree Meyer, my constant encourager, teacher, and friend. Thank you for investing in me and encouraging me to accomplish all that I dreamed possible, and then some! To Hellen Lee-Keller, the most awe-inspiring teacher, motivator, inspiration, encourager, and friend. Thank you for caring so deeply, pushing me when I needed it most, and encouraging me always. May I one day be even half the amazing woman that you are! I also just want to thank Brian and Linds, my MA buddies and biggest supporters; Bailey, my prayer warrior and light; the beautiful Ernst family, who bring the sunshine of Jesus into my life every week; Kayla, my best friend forever; Suzette, the greatest boss ever; my bestest friends from YAF and Greenwood Calvary; the wonderful Handy and Adams families; and, my beautiful church family at Cool Community Church. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Dedication………………………………………………………………………………....v Acknowledgments…………………………………………………………...........……...vi Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION………………………………………...…………………….….......1 Sociocultural Context: Cultural Theory Concerning Whiteness, Institutionalized Racism, and Internalization……………………………………………………….4 Critical Stakes………………………………………………………………........27 Critical Arguments……..………………………………………………………...29 2. CHAPTER 2………………………………………………………………….……….32 3. CHAPTER 3…………………………………………….……………..……………...62 4. CONCLUSION……………….……………………………………………………….93 5. Works Consulted……………………………………………………………………..101 vii 1 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION Why is it that ―the humiliated of one culture become the shock troops of another, the ignominy of a slave prompting a need to retrieve dignity and self-respect by identifying with the master‘s voice and the very forces that gave rise to domination in the first place‖ (Gibbons 94)? In posing this question to the antebellum United States, Luke Gibbons interrogates the interracial fight for economic power and value in a U.S. society that is controlled by a system of institutionalized white racism. More specifically, this interracial struggle that Gibbons emphasizes can be traced back to a system of minority economic exploitation and disempowerment built upon the performance of a category of whiteness. Using the power of whiteness to construct what Robert Jensen, in his work The Heart of Whiteness, terms a white supremacist social system, a dominant white group (those who adequately perform certain characteristics categorized as white) powerfully exerts not only an external control, but also a pivotal internal oppression over groups classified as non-white (i.e. minorities) (Jensen 3). This internal oppression of minority groups comes in the form of a sociological process called internalization. With internalization, a minority individual, observing the way in which the system of institutionalized racism—although oppressive—delivers tangible economic rewards and consequences to those classified as white, may be led to believe that his or her own value and economic productivity is minimal in comparison to that gained by a white identity (Jensen 5). Furthermore, with this belief in mind, the individual may choose to reject many alternatives to the white system such as solidarity with other minority groups and 2 instead may affirm the power of whiteness by imitating its racist propaganda and seeking white approval at the expense of other minority groups. Within this paper, I explore representations of internalization of white supremacy, as I analyze two novels, John Okada‘s No- No Boy (1957) and Chester Himes‘ If He Hollers Let Him Go (1945) that are set in the transitional two-year period immediately following WWII. In both novels, a central tension revolves around the protagonists‘ vacillation between economic alternatives available to minorities and the seemingly more practical and effective economic values of the exploitive white system they occupy. This central conflict between individual economic methods and the values of the white system is illustrated within very specific textual instances in which African-American and Japanese-American minority groups fight with each other in order to attain greater economic success within the oppressive white supremacist system. Ultimately, these literary representations of interracial minority fighting illustrate the underlying phenomenon—whereby minority individuals come to formulate but then reject their own economic alternatives—as they tend to internalize and emulate the values and economic practices of the destructive white racist system that oppresses them. By pointing out this process of internalizing white supremacy, both Okada and Himes do not merely highlight a depressing and hopeless phenomenon. Instead, both authors offer their readers a warning against the dangers of allowing a racist system of economic power to continue. Furthermore, both authors also offer a solution to countering white economic exploitation—acting upon the creative alternatives of cooperation that minority individuals in each novel formulate. 3 In this introduction to my thesis, I lay the groundwork for my larger project by providing key theoretical and background data. First, I highlight the four major theoretical concepts that inform my literary arguments: 1) racism as an institutionalized system in the U.S.; 2) whiteness as a systemic concept; 3) minority internalization of this white system; and 4) interracial minority conflict and imitation of white economic values. By defining and underscoring these four major concepts, in particular, I construct my literary argument that due to the institutionalized power and economic reality of the white system, minority groups tend to fight each other as they internalize and emulate the very system that exploits them. Following this theoretical section, I underscore the different issues of agency that shaped African-American and Asian-American experiences in the two- to three- year span immediately following WWII. Ultimately, by highlighting these issues of agency, I will indicate the specific historical context and power dynamics