HYDROGEN APPLICATIONS IN TRANSPORT HFCV VS EV VS ICE, PRODUCTION ROUTES, KEY CHALLENGES, ECONOMICS, TRANSITIONING COMPANIES AND PLANNED PROJECTS Cameron Rout, James Hammerton & Hu Li SEPTEMBER 2019 Table of Contents: Executive Summary ............................................................................................................................................ 6 1. An Introduction to Hydrogen Fuel .............................................................................................................. 7 1.1. A Brief Background .............................................................................................................................. 7 1.2. Hydrogen vs Conventional Fuels ......................................................................................................... 8 1.3. Comparison of FC vs EV vs ICE vehicles ............................................................................................... 9 1.3.1 Emissions .................................................................................................................................... 11 1.3.2. Infrastructure ............................................................................................................................. 12 1.3.3. Technology Maturity .................................................................................................................. 14 1.3.4. Driving Range ............................................................................................................................. 16 1.3.5. Fuel Purity .................................................................................................................................. 17 1.3.6. Overall Cost ................................................................................................................................ 18 1.4. H2 Production Routes ........................................................................................................................ 19 1.4.2. Reforming and POx .................................................................................................................... 19 1.4.3. Electrolysis ................................................................................................................................. 21 1.4.4. Renewable Liquid Reforming ..................................................................................................... 22 1.4.5. Fermentation ............................................................................................................................. 23 1.4.6. Photo Electrochemical (PEC) Water Splitting ............................................................................ 23 1.4.7. Photobiological .......................................................................................................................... 23 1.4.8. Types of Production Facilities .................................................................................................... 24 1.5. Key Challenges to H2 Implementation (Storage, Infrastructure Etc.) ............................................... 25 1.5.2. Storage ....................................................................................................................................... 25 1.5.3. Distribution and Delivery ........................................................................................................... 26 1.5.4. Infrastructure ............................................................................................................................. 28 1.5.5. Standards and Safety: ................................................................................................................ 28 1.5.6. Cost: ........................................................................................................................................... 30 1.5.7. Public Response: ........................................................................................................................ 30 1 2. A Closer Look at Hydrogen Vehicles: ........................................................................................................ 31 2.1. Major Components of HFCVs and Operating Principles: .................................................................. 33 2.2. Hydrogen Powered ICE Vehicles ....................................................................................................... 34 2.2.1. Hydrogen for Intermittent Use in ICE ........................................................................................ 36 2.2.3. Dual-Fuel/Hydrogen Mixtures for ICE ............................................................................................ 36 2.3. Conversion Efficiencies...................................................................................................................... 37 2.4. The Market Position .......................................................................................................................... 38 2.4.1. Global and UK Production and Consumption ............................................................................ 39 2.5. Manufacturing and Fuel Costs .......................................................................................................... 41 2.6. Lifespan and Range ........................................................................................................................... 42 3. Planned and Approved Projects in the North/UK .................................................................................... 42 4. Current/Future Applications in Transport ................................................................................................ 46 4.1. UK-Based Projects ............................................................................................................................. 47 4.2. International Projects ........................................................................................................................ 49 4.3. Non-Application International Projects ............................................................................................ 52 5. Hydrogen Vehicle Fleets in the UK ........................................................................................................... 53 5.1. An Introduction to Hydrogen in the UK ............................................................................................ 53 5.2. Public Access Fleets ........................................................................................................................... 54 5.3. Governmental Fleets ......................................................................................................................... 56 5.4. Fleet Transition Studies ..................................................................................................................... 57 5.4.1. Knoxville Bus Fleet ..................................................................................................................... 57 5.4.2. Policy Considerations ................................................................................................................. 60 6. Current and Future UK H2 Activity Map: .................................................................................................. 60 6.1. All Existing and Planned UK Hydrogen Activities (Diagram and Table):Error! Bookmark not defined. 7. Proposed Actions and Objectives ............................................................................................................. 65 8. References: ............................................................................................................................................... 66 2 List of Figures: Figure 1 - Specific energy per unit mass of hydrogen and other fuels (Arup, 2019). ........................................ 9 Figure 2 - Global warming potential of different vehicle types (Acar, C, 2018). ............................................. 11 Figure 3 – All EV charging points around the Leeds region (ZapMap, 2019). ................................................. 13 Figure 4 – The HFC tractor from 1959 (NMAH, 2019). .................................................................................... 15 Figure 5 - Driving range of different vehicle types (Acar, C, 2018). ................................................................. 17 Figure 6 - SC-CO2 of different vehicle types (Acar, C, 2018). ........................................................................... 19 Figure 7 - SMR process flow diagram (HydrogenEurope, 2019). ..................................................................... 20 Figure 8 - Electrolysis of water to form hydrogen (energy.gov, 2019). ........................................................... 21 Figure 9 – A liquid hydrogen tanker truck (United Hydrogen, 2019). ............................................................. 27 Figure 10 - The invisible hydrogen flame (Okino, T, 2019). ............................................................................. 29 Figure 11 - A typical HFC operating principle (SMMT, 2019). ......................................................................... 34 Figure 12 Flammability limits of common engine fuels in terms of air-fuel ratio (λ). Note: Air-fuel ratio operation range from an engine would be narrower than shown as there are other limitations, such as flame speed and unburned fuel emissions. ..............................................................................................................