Van_de_Poel_cover.indd 1 2/19/2011 6:48:16 PM Van_de_Poel_ffirs.indd ii 1/27/2011 11:54:07 AM Ethics, Technology, and Engineering Van_de_Poel_ffirs.indd i 1/27/2011 11:54:07 AM Van_de_Poel_ffirs.indd ii 1/27/2011 11:54:07 AM Ethics, Technology, and Engineering An Introduction Ibo van de Poel and Lambèr Royakkers A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication Van_de_Poel_ffirs.indd iii 1/27/2011 11:54:07 AM This edition first published 2011 © 2011 Ibo van de Poel and Lambèr Royakkers © chapter 7: Peter-Paul Verbeek; © chapter 10: Michiel Brumsen Blackwell Publishing was acquired by John Wiley & Sons in February 2007. Blackwell’s publishing program has been merged with Wiley’s global Scientific, Technical, and Medical business to form Wiley-Blackwell. 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If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Poel, Ibo van de, 1966– Ethics, Technology, and Engineering : An Introduction / by Ibo van de Poel and Lambèr Royakkers. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4443-3094-6 (hardcover : alk. paper) – ISBN 978-1-4443-3095-3 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Technology–Moral and ethical aspects. I. Royakkers, Lambèr M. M. II. Title. BJ59.P63 2011 174′.96–dc22 2010042204 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. This book is published in the following electronic formats: eBook 978-1-4443-9570-9; ePub 978-1-4443-9571-6 Set in 10/12.5pt Galliard by SPi Publisher Services, Pondicherry, India Printed in Singapore 1 2011 Van_de_Poel_ffirs.indd iv 1/27/2011 11:54:08 AM Contents Acknowledgments x Introduction 1 1 The Responsibilities of Engineers 6 1.1 Introduction 7 1.2 Responsibility 9 1.3 Passive Responsibility 10 1.4 Active Responsibility and the Ideals of Engineers 13 1.4.1 Technological enthusiasm 14 1.4.2 Effectiveness and efficiency 16 1.4.3 Human welfare 18 1.5 Engineers versus Managers 21 1.5.1 Separatism 21 1.5.2 Technocracy 22 1.5.3 Whistle-blowing 23 1.6 The Social Context of Technological Development 25 1.7 Chapter Summary 28 Study Questions 29 Discussion Questions 30 2 Codes of Conduct 31 2.1 Introduction 32 2.2 Codes of Conduct 33 2.2.1 Professional codes 34 2.2.2 Corporate codes 40 2.3 Possibilities and Limitations of Codes of Conduct 43 2.3.1 Codes of conduct and self-interest 44 2.3.2 Vagueness and potential contradictions 46 Van_de_Poel_ftoc.indd v 1/26/2011 1:31:37 AM vi Contents 2.3.3 Can ethics be codified? 48 2.3.4 Can codes of conduct be lived by? 50 2.3.5 Enforcement 52 2.4 Codes of Conduct in an International Context 54 2.4.1 Global codes for multinationals 54 2.4.2 Global codes for engineers 58 2.5 Chapter Summary 61 Study Questions 62 Discussion Questions 63 3 Normative Ethics 65 3.1 Introduction 67 3.2 Ethics and Morality 70 3.3 Descriptive and Normative Judgments 71 3.4 Points of Departure: Values, Norms, and Virtues 72 3.4.1 Values 72 3.4.2 Norms 74 3.4.3 Virtues 75 3.5 Relativism and Absolutism 75 3.5.1 Normative relativism 76 3.5.2 Absolutism 76 3.6 Ethical Theories 77 3.7 Utilitarianism 78 3.7.1 Jeremy Bentham 79 3.7.2 Mill and the freedom principle 84 3.7.3 Criticism of utilitarianism 86 3.7.4 Applying utilitarianism to the Ford Pinto case 88 3.8 Kantian Theory 89 3.8.1 Categorical imperative 90 3.8.2 Criticism of Kantian theory 93 3.8.3 Applying Kant’s theory to the Ford Pinto case 95 3.9 Virtue Ethics 95 3.9.1 Aristotle 96 3.9.2 Criticism of virtue ethics 98 3.9.3 Virtues for morally responsible engineers 99 3.10 Care Ethics 102 3.10.1 The importance of relationships 102 3.10.2 Criticism of care ethics 103 3.10.3 Care ethics in engineering 103 3.11 Applied Ethics 105 3.12 Chapter Summary 106 Study Questions 107 Discussion Questions 108 Van_de_Poel_ftoc.indd vi 1/26/2011 1:31:37 AM Contents vii 4 Normative Argumentation 109 4.1 Introduction 110 4.2 Valid Arguments 113 4.3 Deductive and Non-Deductive Arguments 116 4.4 Arguments in Ethical Theories 118 4.4.1 Argumentation by analogy 118 4.4.2 Arguments in a utilitarian plea 119 4.4.3 Argumentation in Kantian reasoning 122 4.4.4 Argumentation in virtue-ethical reasoning 126 4.5 Fallacies 127 4.5.1 Some common fallacies in ethical discussions 127 4.5.2 Fallacies of risk 129 4.6 Chapter Summary 131 Study Questions 131 Discussion Questions 132 5 The Ethical Cycle 133 5.1 Introduction 134 5.2 Ill-Structured Problems 135 5.3 The Ethical Cycle 137 5.3.1 Moral problem statement 138 5.3.2 Problem analysis 142 5.3.3 Options for actions 143 5.3.4 Ethical evaluation 145 5.3.5 Reflection 146 5.4 An Example 147 5.4.1 Moral problem statement 149 5.4.2 Problem analysis 150 5.4.3 Options for actions 151 5.4.4 Ethical evaluation 151 5.4.5 Reflection 153 5.5 Collective Moral Deliberation and Social Arrangements 155 5.6 Chapter Summary 157 Study Questions 158 Discussion Questions 159 6 Ethical Questions in the Design of Technology 161 6.1 Introduction 163 6.2 Ethical Issues During the Design Process 165 6.2.1 Problem analysis and formulation 166 6.2.2 Conceptual design 168 6.2.3 Simulation 170 6.2.4 Decision 171 6.2.5 Detail design 173 Van_de_Poel_ftoc.indd vii 1/26/2011 1:31:37 AM viii Contents 6.2.6 Prototype development and testing 174 6.2.7 Manufacture and construction 175 6.3 Trade-offs and Value Conflicts 177 6.3.1 Cost-benefit analysis 180 6.3.2 Multiple criteria analysis 183 6.3.3 Thresholds 185 6.3.4 Reasoning 187 6.3.5 Value Sensitive Design 188 6.3.6 A comparison of the different methods 189 6.4 Regulatory Frameworks: Normal and Radical Design 190 6.5 Chapter Summary 194 Study Questions 195 Discussion Questions 197 7 Designing Morality 198 Peter-Paul Verbeek 7.1 Introduction 199 7.2 Ethics as a Matter of Things 200 7.3 Technological Mediation 201 7.3.1 Mediation of perception 202 7.3.2 Mediation of action 204 7.4 Moralizing Technology 205 7.4.1 Criticizing the moral character of technological artifacts 206 7.4.2 Taking mediation into ethics 207 7.5 Designing Mediations 211 7.6 Chapter Summary 214 Study Questions 215 Discussion Questions 216 8 Ethical Aspects of Technical Risks 217 8.1 Introduction 219 8.2 Definitions of Central Terms 221 8.3 The Engineer’s Responsibility for Safety 223 8.4 Risk Assessment 225 8.4.1 The reliability of risk assessments 227 8.5 When are Risks Acceptable? 228 8.5.1 Informed consent 231 8.5.2 Do the advantages outweigh the risks? 232 8.5.3 The availability of alternatives 233 8.5.4 Are risks and benefits justly distributed? 234 8.6 Risk Communication 236 8.7 Dealing with Uncertainty and Ignorance 237 8.7.1 The precautionary principle 238 8.7.2 Engineering as a societal experiment 241 8.8 Chapter Summary 244 Study Questions 245 Discussion Questions 247 Van_de_Poel_ftoc.indd viii 1/26/2011 1:31:37 AM Contents ix 9 The Distribution of Responsibility in Engineering 249 9.1 Introduction 250 9.2 The Problem of Many Hands 252 9.2.1 The CitiCorp building 253 9.2.2 Causes of the problem of many hands 256 9.2.3 Distributing responsibility 257 9.3 Responsibility and the Law 258 9.3.1 Liability versus regulation 259 9.3.2 Negligence versus strict liability 260 9.3.3 Corporate liability 263 9.4 Responsibility in Organizations 263 9.5 Responsibility Distributions and Technological Designs 267 9.6 Chapter Summary 272 Study Questions 273 Discussion Questions 274 10 Sustainability, Ethics, and Technology 277 Michiel Brumsen 10.1 Introduction 278 10.2 Environmental Ethics? 280 10.3 Environmental Problems 281 10.4 Sustainable Development 283 10.4.1 The Brundtland definition 283 10.4.2 Moral justification 284 10.4.3 Operationalization 286 10.5 Can a Sustainable Society be Realized? 289 10.6 Engineers and Sustainability 291 10.6.1 Points of attention during the design process 292 10.6.2 Life cycle analysis 293 10.7 Chapter Summary 298 Study Questions 299 Discussion Questions 300 Appendix I: Engineering Qualifications and Organizations in a Number of Countries 301 Appendix II: NSPE Code of Ethics for Engineers 307 Appendix III: FEANI Position Paper on Code of Conduct: Ethics and Conduct of Professional Engineers 313 Appendix IV: Shell Code of Conduct 315 Appendix V: DSM Values and Whistle Blowing Policy 320 Glossary 329 References 340 Index of Cases 351 Index 352 Van_de_Poel_ftoc.indd ix 1/26/2011 1:31:37 AM Acknowledgments This book is based on our Dutch text book Royakkers, L., van de Poel, I.