English middle-class girls’ high schools and ‘domestic subjects’ 1871-1914. Sayaka Nakagomi PhD thesis. Submitted to the UCL Institute of Education, University of London. Final version, April 2016. 1 I hereby declare that, except where explicit attribution is made, the work presented in this thesis is entirely my own. Word count (exclusive of appendices and bibliography): 85,287 words. 2 Acknowledgements. I would like to show my gratitude to many individuals and groups: Professor Jane Martin, my first supervisor at the Institute of Education, sincerely supported and helped me to find my research topic and approach during my first two years of the MPhil/PhD Course. Professor Miriam David, my second supervisor at the Institute of Education, warmly helped me to draft and revise the chapters in the later stage of my PhD Course. Professor Gary McCulloch and Professor Joyce Goodman, my thesis examiners, have given very careful and sharp comments to widen as well as to deepen my research scope. The archivists and librarians gave me great help when exploring the archival materials. I would especially like to thank Dr Christine A. Joy of Manchester High School for Girls Archive, Mrs Jean Longley of Camden School for Girls Archive and archivists of North London Collegiate School Archive. The first three years of my MPhil/PhD were funded by a Japan Student Service Organisation’s scholarship. The History of Education Society gave me various chances to present my research work, supported me with bursaries and enabled me to meet many friends who are also working on the history of education. I am also thankful to my family and friends in Japan, and also those in London. 3 Abstract. How ‘domestic subjects’, variously defined as cookery, dress-making, housewifery, laundry, needlework were transformed in English middle-class girls’ high schools between 1871 and 1914 is the subject of this thesis, dates deliberately chosen to build upon the work of other scholars. Changing notions of middle-class women’s positions in society and the economy influenced the development of these schools, their academic curriculum and the characteristics of ‘domestic subjects’. Middle-class girls’ education and the pioneer headmistresses such as Miss Frances M. Buss, founder of North London Collegiate School (NLCS) and Camden School for Girls (CSG), have been extensively studied by feminist historians of education such as Delamont (1978). The Victorian women’s movements were seen as a struggle for sexual and social equality through secondary and higher education. Miss Sara A. Burstall as headmistress of Manchester High School for Girls (MHSG) introduced ‘domestic subjects’ in 1900. Delamont saw this as a challenge to what earlier pioneers had achieved in the academic curriculum. ‘Domestic subjects’ had arguably been provided to meet the needs of girls with lower academic ability and/or lower social backgrounds within the high schools. I have found that the curriculum offered in girls’ high schools throughout the period 1871 – 1914 was more gender-specific than previous scholars had considered. ‘Domestic subjects’ such as cookery, dress-making had always been included even when the pioneering headmistresses were also struggling to achieve academic goals. The originality of my thesis lies in the comprehensive and detailed documentary analysis of previously unexplored sources for the period 1870-1914 of the Association of Head Mistresses (AHM), founded by Miss Buss, and those of the three case study school archives (NLCS, CSG and MHSG) and also books written by contemporary headmistresses such as Miss Burstall. Through a detailed analysis of these materials, I have revised the history of the transformation of ‘domestic subjects’. My findings show different stories of the transformation of ‘domestic subjects’ in the three case study schools which reflected the changing positions of middle class women in universities, labour market and home. First, ‘domestic subjects’ were a part of girls’ high school curriculum from their inception. Second, three stages were revealed with different contents, aims, staff and pupils as: a) separate compulsory subjects (1870s-1890s), b) special classes under the category of ‘technical’ education (1880s – 1890s) c) comprehensive special courses (after 1900). 4 Third, the six headmistresses in the three schools reacted differently to the changing social, economic and educational environments considering the financial states of schools and demands of pupils and their parents. Fourth, staff and pupils involved in ‘domestic subjects’ were not limited to those with lower academic ability and/or lower social backgrounds of their parents. In conclusion, the changing characteristics of ‘domestic subjects’ in girls’ high schools can be seen as a move from Miss Buss to Miss Burstall: a difficult balancing act of academic and feminine roles at home, at school and in employment and responding to individual girls, local and parental needs and the growing role of the state, through its national Board of Education (BOE). 5 Contents. Acknowledgements. 3 Abstract. 4 Contents. 6 List of tables and figures. 11 Abbreviations. 13 Part I: Introductory and conceptual. 14 Chapter 1: Setting the scene for the histories of middle class girls’ 14 education. 1.1. Introduction. 14 1.2. Personal and professional reasons for my research. 14 1.3. Class-based analysis of education in Victorian and Edwardian England. 15 1.4. Usefulness of a gendered approach in the history of education. 18 1.5. Working-class girls’ education in Victorian and Edwardian England. 19 1.6. Developing ideas about Victorian and Edwardian middle-class girls’ 21 education. 1.7. Expansion of schools for middle-class girls from 1850 onwards. 24 1.8. Feminist historians’ arguments about ‘domestic subjects’. 34 1.9. Changing aims of middle-class girls’ curriculum: From ‘double 43 conformity’ to ‘divided aims’. 1.10. Research questions. 46 1.11. Contents. 47 Chapter 2: Research approach. 49 2.1. Introduction. 49 2.2. Presentation of my research. 49 2.2.1. Historical documentary research. 49 2.2.2. Memoirs. 50 2.2.3. Curriculum history. 50 2.2.4. Historical case study. 53 2.3. Three case schools: North London Collegiate School (NLCS) (1850- 54 6 1914), Camden School for Girls (CSG) (1871-1914) and Manchester High School for Girls (MHSG) (1874-1914). 2.4. Primary source materials. 57 2.4.1. Individual school archives. 58 2.4.2. Records of the Association of Head Mistresses (AHM). 58 2.4.3. Other archives. 59 2.5. Focus on headmistresses, pupils and parents/guardians. 59 2.6. Biographical information of six headmistresses. 60 2.6.1. Frances Mary Buss (1827-1894). Headmistress of NLCS (1850-1894). 61 2.6.2. Sophie Bryant (1850-1922). Headmistress of NLCS (1895-1918). 61 2.6.3. Emma Jane Elford (Dates unknown). Headmistress of CSG (1871- 62 1882). 2.6.4. Fanny Lawford (1852-1940). Headmistress of CSG (1882-1914). 62 2.6.5. Elizabeth Day (1844-1917). Headmistress of MHSG (1873-1898). 63 2.6.6. Sara Annie Burstall (1859-1939). Headmistress of MHSG (1898-1924). 64 2.7. Links of the six headmistresses of the three schools. 65 2.7.1. Links within AHM. 65 2.7.2. Links around Miss Buss and NLCS. 68 Part II: The changing views and values of professional educators of 74 girls: ‘Live mathematics’ or ‘dead housecraft’? Chapter 3: ‘Live mathematics’ or ‘dead housecraft’: Changing views of 74 the Association of Head Mistresses (AHM) on the curriculum of girls’ secondary schools. 3.1. Introduction. 74 3.2. Views before the 1890s. 74 3.3. Growing interest on ‘technical education’ in the 1890s. 75 3.4. Headmistresses’ answers to the Royal Commission on Secondary 79 Education 1894-1895. 3.5. Responses to the Board of Education’s move to include ‘domestic 81 subjects’ in girls’ secondary curriculum in the 1900s. 3.6. Shaping suitable curricula for ‘Non-College girls’ after the 1910s. 88 3.7. Establishment of Home Science and Economic Course, King’s College, 95 London in 1908. 3.8. Changing views of headmistresses on the introduction of ‘domestic 97 7 subjects’: A conclusion. Part III: Case studies of the three schools. 99 Chapter 4: North London Collegiate School (NLCS) under Miss Buss 99 (1871-1894). 4.1. Introduction. 99 4.2. School organisation and curriculum. 99 4.3. Miss Buss’s view of ‘domestic subjects’. 102 4.4. Plain Needlework 1871-1894. 104 4.5. Domestic Economy 1872-1894. 107 4.6. Cookery 1876-1882. 112 4.7. ‘Various branches of technical education’ 1885. 120 4.8. Staff and pupils. 124 4.9. Headmistress’s approach to ‘domestic subjects’: A conclusion. 126 Chapter 5: North London Collegiate School (NLCS) under Mrs Bryant 128 (1895-1914). 5.1. Introduction. 128 5.2. Changes in school organisation and curriculum after 1895. 128 5.3. Mrs Bryant’s view of ‘domestic subjects’. 133 5.4. Needlework 1894-1914. 138 5.5. Domestic Economy 1894-1903. 141 5.6. Cookery 1895-1898 and 1904. 144 5.7. Domestic Arts Course 1904-1909. 146 5.8. Home Craft and Household Business Course 1909-1914. 149 5.9. Staff. 155 5.10. Headmistress’s approach to ‘domestic subjects’: A conclusion. 155 Chapter 6: Camden School for Girls (CSG) under Miss Elford 157 (1871-1882) & Miss Lawford (1882-1914). 6.1. Introduction. 157 6.2. School organisation and curriculum. 157 6.3. Influence of Miss Buss on CSG. 161 6.4. Needlework 1871-1914. 162 6.5. Domestic Economy 1872-1909. 165 8 6.6. Cookery 1876. 168 6.7. Cookery & Dressmaking courses and Domestic Science after 1894. 169 6.8. Staff. 178 6.9. Pupils aiming for ‘domestic subjects’ teaching after the mid-1890s. 178 6.10. Headmistresses’ approach to ‘domestic subjects’: A conclusion. 182 Chapter 7: Manchester High School for Girls (MHSG) under Miss Day 186 (1874-1898) & Miss Burstall (1898-1914).