LITERARY EXPRESSION IN POST-APARTHEID SOUTH AFRICA BY ADETUNJI KAZEEM ADEBIYI MATRIC NO.: 108685 SUPERVISOR PROF. E.B. OMOBOWALE Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Award of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in the Department of English, Faculty of Arts, University of Ibadan February, 2014 CERTIFICATION I certify that this work was researched and written by Adetunji Kazeem Adebiyi under my supervision. --------------------------------------------------------------------------- Professor Emmanuel Babatunde Omobowale B. A. (Hons), M. A., PhD (Ibadan) ii DEDICATION This work is dedicated to my maternal uncle, Late Chief Popoola Balogun, without whose support, at a most critical time, my dream of tertiary education could have turned a stillbirth. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I acknowledge the grace of God in the fruition of this project. I also thank Him for it. Indeed, the harvest is to His glory. Several people have contributed to the harvest. I guess the only way by which I can make them savour the taste of the fruit, if only vicariously, is to appreciate their gestures. For sowing the seed, I thank my parents, Late Chief and Alhaja Sadiq Adebiyi Adelabu. For watering it, I thank my late uncle, Chief Popoola Balogun; and my brother, Mr Wasiu Adebayo Adelabu. Acknowledging the contribution of the supervisor in a study like this is customary. For me, the question is, what do I acknowledge? Is it the proper guidance or intellectual enrichment I got? Is it the moral or spiritual supports, which were beyond the call of duty? Is it the teachings about bringing humanity into all we do? Is it the interest in my personal well-being? Is it his liberal disposition? I can‟t continue. These dispositions enriched or stabilised me at critical times in the course of my study. All I want to say is that I couldn‟t have had a better supervisor than Professor E. B. Omobowale. All my lecturers in the Department of English, University of Ibadan, are hereby gratefully acknowledged for intellectually enriching my life. I would like to specifically appreciate the supports and encouragements I received from Prof. Ayo Kehinde; Drs. R. O. Oriaku, O. B. Jegede, M. T. Lamidi, S. A. Odebunmi, A. B. Sunday; and Mr Bassey. Also deserving of appreciation in this light are my friends, Dr. O. O. Familusi and Dr. Babajide Ololajulo, also lecturers in the Department of Religious Studies and the Department of Anthropology respectively, for their sustained interest in seeing me complete the programme. In successfully carrying out this study, I benefitted immensely from the goodwill and kindness of many friends. They are so many that I feel tempted to avoid listing them. However, the crucial roles some of them played in bringing about this harvest make this impossible. I, therefore, would like to single out some of them for recognition and appreciation. Razaq Adedayo is tops on the list for not only encouraging me to take on the PhD challenge, but also for practicalising his encouragement by buying me half a dozen titles of post-apartheid novels. Next is Samson Alli who enlisted his support for my study by paying for a two and a half years subscription to Questia online library on my behalf. Following the same thread, Akin Salami, undeterred by some unusual shipment challenges, got me four titles of post-apartheid plays. I would also like to thank Mr. Ahmed Olasehinde, Dr Sunday Adedini and Mr. Gideon Fareo who, at different times, facilitated my procurement of some books from South Africa. I profoundly appreciate these friends indeed, and pray that their return to roots, if and when they choose, would be attended with joy, booties and fulfilment. iv Other friends and colleagues who were supportive in various ways include Kayode Azeez, Taiwo Osanyemi, Tunde Adedeji, Kazeem Oyedeji, Taiwo Adebayo, Luqman Adaranijo, Ibrahim Motajo, Ponnle Lawson, Dr (Mrs) C. O. Adewusi, Dr (Mrs) C. O. Ajewole-Orimogunje, Mrs. A O. Michael and Mrs. C. O. Oyelekan, all of the Federal Polytechnic, Ede. The kind gestures and sustained interest of friends like Wasiu Moshood, Nurudeen Lawal, Akin Olaniyi, Samson Ilori, Idowu Adekunle and Francis Olatokunbo are also appreciated. The prayerful supports of my Ustaz, Alhaji Abdurrazaq Ilyas, are also acknowledged. To my siblings, Lukman, Fausat, Maruf and Mutiu, I say thanks for your well-wishes and prayers. Finally, I thank my supportive wife, Arike, for bearing those long hours of absence when I stayed back at the office or locked myself in a room swotting. To Fola and Juwon, thanks for the same reason. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Title Page i Certification ii Dedication iii Acknowledgement iv-v Table of Contents vi-vii Abstract viii CHAPTER ONE: Introduction 1.1 Background to the Study 1 1.2 A Brief Historical Profile of South Africa 3 1.3 Statement of the Problem 5 1.4 Objective of the Study 5 1.5 Purpose of the Study 6 1.6 Significance of the Study 7 1.7 Research Methodology and Scope 7 1.8 Theoretical Framework 8 CHAPTER TWO: Review of Literature 2.1 Periodising South African Literature 17 2.2 Developments and Trends 26 2.3 Post-apartheid Era and the Literary Imagination 54 CHAPTER THREE: Socio-Political Cum Creative Freedom and the Subversion of Sex and Sexuality Myths 3.1 Introduction 66 3.2 Critical Analysis of Selected Texts 72 3.3 Aesthetics 102 3.4 Conclusion 122 CHAPTER FOUR: Excavating Memories of Truth Towards Reconciliation 4.1 Introduction 124 4.2 Critical Analysis of Selected Texts 129 4.3 Aesthetics 175 vi 4.4 Conclusion 188 CHAPTER FIVE: Realities of Disillusionment 5.1 Introduction 190 5.2 Critical Analysis of Selected Texts 191 5.3 Aesthetics 239 5.4 Conclusion 248 CHAPTER SIX: Summary, Conclusion and Recommendation 249 References 253 vii ABSTRACT Literary productivity in South Africa increased dramatically with the political change from apartheid to multi-racial democracy in 1994. This surge has attracted much interest, with critics trying to map the changes observable on the post-apartheid literary landscape using race and gender. However, adequate attention has not been given to the emergent literature from the political perspective. This study, therefore, examined new themes and forms in selected post-apartheid literature in order to show the impact of political change on literary expression. The study adopted Jean-Francois Lyotard‟s and Homi Bhabha‟s models of postmodernism and postcolonialism respectively. It selected five texts, based on thematic affinities, from each of the genres of prose, drama and poetry. The prose texts are End, A Duty of Memory, The Quiet Violence of Dreams (TQVD), Thirteen Cents and Disgrace. The drama texts are Nothing but the Truth (NBTT), Ubu and the Truth Commission (Ubu), Dream of the Dog (DOD), Molora and Reach! while those from poetry are Dancing in the Rain (DITR), Handsome Jita (HJ), It All Begins, Letter to the State and The New Century of South African Poetry. The methods of analysis are literary and critical interpretations of the texts. Inscriptions of sexual acts, non-normative sexuality and open inter-racial romance, politically forbidden before 1994, are prominent thematic concerns in the novels. Linguistic vulgarism and eroticism are inscribed brazenly in End, TQVD and Thirteen Cents. Postmodern inter-textuality also inscribes eroticism in End. A Duty of Memory and Disgrace explore gay relations only between women, but with restraint. In TQVD and Thirteen Cents, characterisation establishes the inter-racial dimension of gay relations. Specific spatial settings in End and Thirteen Cents destroy the myth of secrecy about the sexual act. The drama texts thematise national reconciliation. However, while Ubu and DOD dwell on the significance of truth in reconciliation, NBTT and Reach! emphasise memory. Molora advocates forgiveness. Using „faction‟, Ubu, NBTT and Molora directly appropriate materials from South Africa‟s politically-motivated Truth and Reconciliation Commission while DOD and Reach! do so indirectly. While characterisation is fictional in the plays, some of the spatial and temporal settings are real. In poetry, the theme of disillusionment about the hopes which multi-racial democracy had held for the people is depicted. This is done directly in all the collections, but also ironically and satirically in It All Begins, Dancing in the Rain, Handsome Jita and Letter to the State. Proverbs and wise sayings, as well as combinations of standard codes and slang, feature noticeably in DITR, HJ and It All Begins. In all the genres, postcolonial hybridity such as glossing, abrogation and linguistic pluralism features. The multiplicity of thematic preoccupations and executions in post-apartheid South African literature illustrates how political change affects the country‟s literary expression. This multiplicity, occasioned by the new political realities, defines the new trajectory of South African literature. Key words: Post-apartheid literature, Political change, Sexuality, Reconciliation, Disillusionment Word count: 467 viii CHAPTER ONE Introduction 1.1 Background to the Study Following her adoption of constitutional democracy and repeal of racially discriminatory laws in the early 1990s, South Africa assumed the sobriquet „Rainbow Nation‟, which derives from the amalgam of different racial groups and ethnic diversity inhabiting the country. The country now operates on the principles of equality, liberty and justice. Geographically, South Africa is located at the Southern- most part of sub-Sahara Africa, specifically on Latitude 29 Degree South and Longitude 24 Degree East. It is bordered on the North by Botswana, Namibia and Zimbabwe; by Mozambique and the Indian Ocean on the East, and by the Atlantic Ocean on the West. Somewhere in the eastern part of the country are Swaziland and Lesotho landlocked by this giant country. The country has three administrative capitals, comprising Pretoria (Executive), Cape Town (Legislative) and Bloemfontein (Judicial), and nine geo-political divisions, which include Gauteng, Limpopo, Free State, Eastern Cape, Western Cape, Northern Cape, Kwazulu-Natal, North-West province and Mpumalanga.