Index Abdul Hadi bin Haji Hasan 9, 129, plantation economy 109, 137 133 smallholder planting 108 Abdul Rahim Kajai 129, 143, 153, Ahmad Zaidi, Tun 149, 162 220 Al azhar 184, 225, 233, 241 Abdul Rahman, Tunku 129, 155–156, Al-Attas, Syde Naquib 218–219 157, 157–160, 164, 208, 215, Alexander the Great 27, 47, 80, 99, 234 100–101, 139 Abdul Razak, Tun 161 All Ceylon Malay Association 117, Abdullah bin Abdul Kadir 135, 178 (Munshi) 64, 70, 73, 92, 110, Amir Hamzah, Tengku 170 112–115, 120, 127–128, 201–203, Andaya, Barbara 95, 174 209, 231, 237, 239 Andaya, Leonard 11, 82, 85, 98–99, Aceh 11, 47, 49, 51, 53, 75, 81, 99, 101, 200 100, 101, 105 Anderson, John 52, 57, 61, 63, 69, adat (custom) 4, 10, 15, 24, 65, 67, 71, 78, 125 70, 77, 113, 128, 134, 137, 139, animism 193 171, 187, 194–197, 199, anthropological work 148, 187, 189– 208–209, 214, 217, 221–222, 197, 217–218, 242 228, 236 see also Malay studies determination by the raja 67–68, Anwar Ibrahim 219 137, 171 Archipelago, pre-colonial levels of, and contents 4 civilizational homogeneity 85, 96 persistence of COPYRIGHTED70 community MATERIAL 96–97 and protection of nama 67 competition and fl uidity 53–55 Adtityawarman 18, 39 narrative of decline 50–51 afterlife 28, 68 political fragmentation 49–50 agriculture 55–56, 108–109 population shifts 55–58 cash cropping 109 architecture colonial 108 colonial 110 pioneering character 57, 95 Islamic 142 276 Index architecture (cont’d) bangsa Melayu 3, 128, 131–132, 138, mosques 44–45, 61, 142 147–148, 151–153, 158, 160–161, royal residences 60–61, 79 173, 210, 213, 220, 227, 229, see also housing 233–238 Ariffi n Omar 136–137, 148, 153, alternative form of community and 171, 173, 200 identity 220, 233 Aru 13, 36–37, 40, 43, 47, 50, 54, ideological challenges 210–215 65, 81 impermanence, anxiety about 130– Asahan 53, 55, 77, 82, 136, 171 132 ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Islamic challenge 138, 142–144, Nations) viii, 2, 238 211, 215–227 atap houses 23 kerajaan concepts, appropriation Austroasiatic languages 22 of 233 Austronesian language family 2, kerajaan opposition to 135–137, 21–22 138 global distribution (map) 20 Melaka-Johor fl avour 236 Austronesian-speaking people 22–24, nation-state challenge 214 27 UMNO version 234–235 Ayutthaya empire 36, 51, 77 Banjar 77 Azahari, Sheikh A. M. 135, 148–149, Banjarmasin 55, 83, 105, 108–109 162, 164, 179 Banks, David 7, 192–193, 197 Barus 24, 77, 82, 91 Babcock, Tim 96, 122, 125, 134, Batak 2, 10, 11, 53, 82, 85, 169–171, 232 185, 199–200, 214, 232 Badawi, Abdullah 219, 239 Batam 175 Bailey, Conner 189 Batavia 105–106, 111, 169 bangsa 10–11, 101, 127–129, 133, Batu Bara 56, 61 142, 210 becoming ‘Malay’ 85, 197, 199–202, adat, role of 221–222 214 and descent 231–232 see also Malayization devotion to 128–129 Bellwood, Peter 21, 23 inclusiveness, notion of 127, Bencoolen 105 133 Benjamin, Geoffrey 5, 10, 76, 82, 94 Islamic resistance to 218–222 bersila 31–32, 40 in kerajaan texts 126–127 bilateralism 8, 23, 188–191, 194, localization 236–238 196 MNP approach 155 Bintan 54, 59, 175 Peninsular focus 154–155, bodhisattva 29, 39, 41 159 ‘Boemipoetera’ 137 promotion of 148–149 bomoh (shaman) 8, 187–188, 190 UMNO approach 154–155 borders 178–183 see also race cross-border activity 180 bangsa consciousness 142–143 kerajaan era 58–59, 180 bangsa Malaysia 161, 213–214 Malaysia–Indonesia 179–180 Index 277 Malaysia–Thailand 180–181 Brunei Malay Teachers Association racial and ethnic 180 148 see also frontiers, open; territory Buddhism 14, 24, 28–29, 32–33, 39, Borneo 10, 22, 27, 43, 53, 71, 77, 83, 41, 107 105, 116, 119, 121, 123–124, bodhisattva ideal 41 158 Siwa-Buddhism 39 becoming ‘Malay’ 199–200 Bugis 10, 11, 124, 199 colonialism 105–106 Bukit Seguntang 100 Dayak 10, 53, 121, 123 Bukit Tinggi 26–27, 29, 100, 174, ‘Malay’ community 197 178–179 ‘Malay homeland’ 22 Bulungan 75, 177 ‘Malayness’ 209–210 bumiputra 160, 163 Muslim immigrants 125 bureaucracies, European-led 118 pre-colonial sultanates 53–54, 58 Burhanuddin Al-Helmy, Dr 154, 157, racial classifi cation 120 158, 160, 209, 215, 234 Borschberg, Peter 89 Brahmanism 28, 31, 33, 37–39 Cambodia 1, 2, 81, 90, 98 Brissenden, Rosemary 196 becoming ‘Malay’ 200 Brooke, Charles 106, 112 ‘Cham’ 1, 98, 178, 182, 184–185, Brooke, James 73, 76, 108, 121 200, 227 Brotherhood of Malay Penfriends ‘Chvea’ 90, 98, 177–178, 117, 131, 134 227 Brown, D. E. 135 Islamism 226–227 Brunei 13, 24, 34, 40, 43, 47, 50–52, ‘Malay’ community 178, 182, 61, 64, 69, 73, 75, 77–78, 83–84, 226 105, 121, 134–135, 137, 148–149, ‘Malay’ consciousness 177–178, 164 185 Azahari rebellion 179, 182, 223 Pol Pot regime 178 bangsa infl uences 148 textile production 182 capitalist class 73 Cape Malay Association 135 colonialism 105 capitalism 72–73 genealogical inheritance 50 Carsten, Janet 188, 192, 194–196, Indianization 24 236 Islamism 83 census taking 120, 122, 124, 126, Japanese occupation 149 147–148, 232 kerajaan concepts, persistence ceremonial of 223 audiences 64–65 ‘Malay’ consciousness 134–135 coronations 25, 69, 142 ‘Malay’ ideological work 223 court ceremonial 31 ‘Malay’ population 1 diplomatic exchanges 33, 51 Malaysia project 164 nama and 67 oil wealth 164 weddings 7, 24–25, 129, 176, 187, royal court 51, 60–61, 62 194, 216 trade 51, 77 ceremony 130, 142, 239 278 Index Ceylon Islamic 216 ‘Malay’ consciousness 177 person-defi ning role 63 see also Sri Lanka royal 31, 61, 63 Chakrabarty, Dipesh 91, 120 status 61, 63 Champa 81 stereotypical 7–8 Chams 1, 161, 178, 182, 184, 200, sumptuary laws 64, 107, 139 227 cock-fi ghting 79, 140 characterization of Malays Cocos-Keeling Islands 4, 88, 178 colonial 5–6 ‘Malayness’ 198 denigrated traits 207 Collins, James 122 revolusi mental, creation of 207, colonialism 5, 75, 109, 158, 177, 182, 209 185 stereotypes 7–8, 77, 95, 111, 115, avowed conservative 119, 122 intentions 103, 106–107 Chea Boon Kheng 152, 156 British 53, 88, 103, 105–106, 110, China x, 36–7, 51 123 Chinese community 3, 72, 108–110, colonial economies 109 121, 151–152, 154–156, 160–161, colonial southeast Asia (map) 104 239 Dutch 53, 102–103, 105, 106–107, communist insurgency 155 110, 123–124, 147, 154, 234 domination of the commercial economies 108–109 sphere 72–73, 109, 128, 203, French 111 206, 239–240 ideological justifi cation 50 growth of 109 ‘Malay’ character, formulation of 6 Malayan Chinese Association ‘Malay colonialism’ 158, 163 (MCA) 156 social change 107 movement from clan identities to communitarian concept 128 Chinese identity 120 community 194–196 separatism 72 adat, importance of 194–196 stimulus to ‘Malay’ ethnicity 9 bangsa-based concept 144 ‘yellow danger’ 111 bilateralism 188–190, 192–194, Chitu 24, 31 196 Christianity 214 community/citizenship tension chronicles 80 211 citizenship 115, 118, 155 cultural notions of 132 community/citizenship tension 211 early historical period 23, 33 civil service 157, 205 family 94–95 civilization, concept of x, 242 halus–kasar dichotomy 65, 195, Malayness and 93 238 Clifford, Sir Hugh 106, 112 inter-monarch relations 33 clothing styles Jawah 96–97 Austronesian people 23 kerajaan community 92, 99 fundamental clothing structure 78 ‘Malay’ minority community inter-polity distinctions 78, 197 status 211 Index 279 pre-colonial 94 Dunia Melaya Dunia Islam ruler-centred polity 29–30 (Malay World/Muslim World) umat-based concept 144 process 177 village 94, 189 Dunia Melayu see ‘Malay World’ Conrad, Joseph viii, 54, 124 Dutch East India Company 52 constitutional defi nitions of ‘Malay’ 2, Dutch East Indies 106–107, 111, 147, 4 154, 234 Cornish, Andrew 226 coronations 69, 142 East Sumatra 39, 55, 78, 86, 108, Indic elements 25 141, 149, 169, 170, 172–174, cosmopolitanism, national 213 224 craftsmen 56 bangsa Sumatra Timur proposal Crawfurd, John 119 173 cultural congresses 183 Buddhism 39, 41 culture Chinese community 109 convergence of cultures 213 colonialism 109 ‘Malay World’ initiatives 214 ethnic categorization 125 stereotypes 7, 8, 77, 122 Japanese occupation 149 see also clothing styles; dance; food kerajaan elite 136–137, 171 and meals; inheritance customs; kerajaan texts 84 music; theatre ‘leaving Malayness’ 200 curses 28–29, 51 ‘Malay’ consciousness 136–137, 170–171 dakwah movement 215–218, 220, ‘Malay’ leadership 173 226 ‘Malay’ population 154, 170–171, dance 52 224 datu 30, 38, 84 overthrow of kerajaan leadership Day, Tony 132 171 Dayak 10, 11, 57–58, 83, 85, 121, State of East Sumatra 171, 173 185, 198–199, 232 textile production 56 De Casparis, J. G. 19 under Japanese occupation 150 Deli 13, 50, 53, 55, 57, 68, 75, 77, East Sumatra Association 117, 136, 82, 91, 106, 109, 136, 140, 170, 148, 171 173 economic backwardness issues 202– derhaka 25, 65, 67, 153 207 descent, issue of 4, 8, 94, 131–132, assistance and reform programmes 188, 209, 235–236 204–205 bangsa and 231–232 deprivation, sense of 110, 202 patrilineal descent 94 economic and social divorce 190, 217 transformation 204–205 Djamour, Judith 187, 194, 212 see also entrepreneurship Drakard, Jane 51, 99, 100, education 102 assistance and reform programmes Dumont, Louis 60 204 280 Index education (cont’d) haj 139–140 colonial systems 106, 117 Haji Sulong 167–168 segregated 136 halus 65, 195, 238 Effendy, Tenas 175 Hamilton, Alexander 86 Encyclopaedie van Nederlandsche- Hang Tuah 47, 68, 93, 131–132, 159, Indie 125 208, 220, 236–237 entrepreneurship 71, 205–207, 239 see also Hikayat Hang Tuah mixing of politics and 71, 240 Harper, Tim 204, 213 networking 206 Harrisson, Tom 83, 134, 193, 203 ethnic oscillation 200–201, Harun Aminurashid 129, 133–135, 232–233