Football Goes East Football is now a significant social and economic force in the world’s largest economies: China, Japan and South Korea Football Goes East provides unique insights into the cultural, economic, political and social factors shaping its development in the Far East. The contributors in this study add both to the theoretical debate and to our empirical knowledge about the social and cultural dimensions of sport in the Far East, with essays including discussion of: • Modernisation, social change and national identity • Women’s football and gender traditions • Public and private finance and investment in football • The development of professional football • Football and the media • Football fans, ‘hooliganism’ and the soccer supporter culture Authors from China, Japan, Korea, Europe and the US outline differences and similarities at the heart of the multi-faceted phenomenon of global football in distinctive local cultures. Considering the impact of globalisation on sport, Football Goes East delivers a critical assessment of the changing tensions between the social, political and economic determinants of sport and leisure cultures in the Far East. Wolfram Manzenreiter is Assistant Professor at the Institute of East Asian Studies, Vienna University, Austria. John Horne is Senior Lecturer in Sociology of Sport and Leisure at the University of Edinburgh, UK. Football Goes East Business, culture and the people’s game in China, Japan and South Korea Edited by Wolfram Manzenreiter and John Horne First published 2004 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005. “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.” © 2004 Edited by Wolfram Manzenreiter and John Horne All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Every effort has been made to ensure that the advice and information in this book is true and accurate at the time of going to press. However, neither the publisher nor the authors can accept any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that may be made. In the case of drug administration, any medical procedure or the use of technical equipment mentioned within this book, you are strongly advised to consult the manufacturer’s guidelines. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record for this book has been requested ISBN 0-203-61921-8 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 0-203-33816-2 (Adobe eReader Format) ISBN 0–415–31897–1 (hbk) ISBN 0–415–31898–X (pbk) Contents v Contents List of illustrations vii List of contributors ix Preface xii 1 Football, culture, globalisation: why professional football has been going East 1 JOHN HORNE AND WOLFRAM MANZENREITER PART I The business of football in East Asian nation-states 19 2 Strategies for locating professional sports leagues: a comparison between France and Korea 21 LOÏC RAVENEL AND CHRISTOPHE DURAND 3 The making of a professional football league: the design of the J.League system 38 HIROSE ICHIR[ 4 Football in the People’s Republic of China 54 ROBIN JONES PART II Players and supporters of the East Asian game 67 5 Japanese football players and the sport talent migration business 69 TAKAHASHI YOSHIO AND JOHN HORNE 6 Football ‘hooligans’ and football supporters’ culture in China 87 TAN HUA vi Contents 7 School sport, physical education and the development of football culture in Japan 102 SUGIMOTO ATSUO 8 Government involvement in football in Korea 117 CHUNG HONGIK PART III Football, representation and identity in East Asia after 2002 131 9 Football and the South Korean imagination: South Korea and the 2002 World Cup tournaments 133 YOON SUNG CHOI 10 Football, fashion and fandom: sociological reflections on the 2002 World Cup and collective memories in Korea 148 WHANG SOON-HEE 11 The banality of football: ‘race’, nativity, and how Japanese football critics failed to digest the planetary spectacle 165 OGASAWARA HIROKI 12 Football, nationalism and celebrity culture: reflections on the impact of different discourses on Japanese identity since the 2002 World Cup 180 SHIMIZU SATOSHI PART IV Football in East Asia beyond the nation-state 195 13 Her place in the ‘House of Football’: globalisation, cultural sexism and women’s football in East Asian societies 197 WOLFRAM MANZENREITER 14 An international comparison of the motivations and experiences of volunteers at the 2002 World Cup 222 NOGAWA HARUO 15 Globalisation and football in East Asia 243 PAUL CLOSE AND DAVID ASKEW Index 257 List of illustrations vii Illustrations Figures 5.1 Annual numbers of Japanese football players moving abroad, 1975–2003 74 8.1 Analytic framework of government involvement in football 117 8.2 Composition of government expenditure on sport 127 8.3 Composition of KFA’s expenditure for 1999 128 14.1a JAWOC volunteers 234 14.1b KOWOC volunteers 234 Maps 2.1 The first championships in France 27 2.2 Dispersing the clubs in France 27 2.3 Clubs and urban hierarchy in France 28 2.4 The beginning of the K-League (1983–90) 30 2.5 Delocalisation in the Korean League 30 2.6 Korean clubs and the urban hierarchy 32 2.7 The K-League and the World Cup stadiums 33 Plates 10.1 Street supporters’ face painting and national-flag fashion 149 10.2 Korean supporters in a state of extreme excitement 152 10.3 A part of the sports tourism experience 153 14.1 JAWOC volunteers getting ready for work 230 14.2 Security stewards waiting for the crowds 231 14.3 Briefing of international volunteers 231 Tables 0.1 Currency values compared with the euro, January 1993 to December 2003 xv viii List of illustrations 2.1 Football’s place in French and Korean society 25 2.2 League structure in France and Korea 25 2.3 Sources of football finance in France and Korea 26 5.1 Japanese football players ‘moving with the ball’, 1975–2003 72 6.1 Chinese families owning television sets in the 1980s 88 10.1 Estimated numbers of street supporters in Korea 151 13.1 National variations of football player output in East Asia and other selected areas 200 13.2 National variations of football player output in East Asia and Singapore 201 13.3 World ranking of men’s and women’s national teams in 2003 202 14.1 Basic profile of World Cup 2002 volunteers in Korea and Japan 228 14.2a Motives of JAWOC volunteers by volunteer type 236 14.2b Motives of KOWOC volunteers by volunteer type 236 14.3a Merits of World Cup volunteering in Japan by volunteer type 237 14.3b Merits of World Cup volunteering in Korea by volunteer type 237 14.4a Causes of volunteer dissatisfaction with JAWOC by volunteer type 239 14.4b Causes of volunteer dissatisfaction with KOWOC by volunteer type 239 List of contributors ix Contributors David Askew is Associate Professor of Law at the Ritsumeikan Asia Pacific University, Japan. He also works at Monash University, Australia, where he does more or less what he likes. He is currently working on several projects, including human rights in the Asia Pacific and jurisprudence. His latest publication is D. Askew ed., Buried Bodies, Looted Treasure, and Government Propaganda: Footprints in History, Nanjing, 1937–38. Yoon S. Choi is currently a graduate student at New York University. Her research interests and areas of work include globalisation, performance in the public sphere, East Asian popular culture (cinema, music, television), and contem- porary Korean society and culture. For her next project, she will be examining the South Korean hip-hop movement and its links to the Korean-American community. Chung Hongik is Professor in the Graduate School of Public Administration at Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea. He received his PhD and MA in sociology from the University of Minnesota and his BA from Seoul National University. Dr Chung, author of many articles and monographs, is the founder and first president of the Korean Cultural Policy Association. Paul Close is a Professor in Asia Pacific Studies at Ritsumeikan Asia Pacific University, Japan where he established the APU’s East Asia Regional Studies (EARS) centre. His research interests include regionalisation in the Asia Pacific and Europe, and (with David Askew) investigating The Global Political Economy of Asia Pacific and Human Rights for a book to be published by Ashgate Publishing in 2004. His latest book is The Legacy of Supranationalism (2000). Christophe Durand is a lecturer in the School of Sports Sciences at the University of Rouen (CETAPS, UPRES JE 2318). He has a PhD in management and the majority of his research is directed toward the regulation of professional sports in Europe and America. He is also in charge of the DESS program (a one-year post-Master’s diploma) in marketing and management in professional sports. Hirose Ichir* is a graduate from the University of Tokyo Law Department and currently senior fellow with the Research Institute of Economy, Trade and x List of contributors Industry (RIETI). A former Dentsu employee, he has extensive professional experience in the field of international sport marketing. He is author of numerous articles and monographs, including Sports Marketing for Professional Use (1994) and Media Sports (1997).