UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, SAN DIEGO Ixpantepec Nieves Mixtec Word Prosody A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in Linguistics by Lucien Serapio Carroll Committee in charge: Professor Eric Bakovic, Co-Chair Professor Gabriela Caballero, Co-Chair Professor Mario Chávez Peón Professor Marc Garellek Professor John Haviland Professor Sharon Rose 2015 Copyright Lucien Serapio Carroll, 2015 All rights reserved. The dissertation of Lucien Serapio Carroll is approved, and it is acceptable in quality and form for publication on microflm and electronically: Co-Chair Co-Chair University of California, San Diego 2015 iii DEDICATION To the people of Ixpantepec Nieves and Familia Indígena Unida. iv EPIGRAPH “El pueblo y partido de Icpactepec, de la cercanía del dicho obispado [Tlacotepec], ... hablan los naturales dél la dicha lengua misteca y mexicana.” (The town and district of Ixpantepec, nearby said diocese [Tlacotepec], ... the people from there speak the Mixtec and Mexica languages.) —El distrito y pueblos que tiene el obispado de Tlaxcala, con otras cosas (Pérez de Andrade c. 1572/1904:20) “El pueblo de Ycpatepec esta dos leguas de Çilacaioapa, ... es tierra fragosa y lengua misteca.” (The town of Ixpantepec is two leagues from Silacayoapan, ... the terrain is rough and the language is Mixtec.) —Relaciones geográfcas de la Diócesis de Tlaxcala (Aznar c. 1580/1905:238) v TABLE OF CONTENTS Signature Page ...................................... iii Dedication ........................................ iv Epigraph ......................................... v Table of Contents ..................................... vi List of Figures ...................................... x List of Tables ....................................... xii Acknowledgements ................................... xvi Vita ............................................ xix Abstract of the Dissertation ............................... xx Chapter 1 Introduction ................................ 1 1.1 Aims ................................. 1 1.2 Genetic afliation ......................... 3 1.3 Previous documentation ...................... 7 1.4 Sociolinguistic status ........................ 8 1.5 Data collection and presentation ................. 9 1.6 Overview .............................. 11 Chapter 2 Word prosodic typology ......................... 12 2.1 Introduction ............................. 12 2.2 Defning stress and tone ...................... 12 2.2.1 Stress systems ........................ 13 2.2.2 Tone systems ........................ 14 2.2.3 Stress and tone contrasted ................. 16 2.2.4 Phonological interaction of stress and tone ....... 18 2.3 Acoustics of stress and tone .................... 21 2.3.1 Vowel Duration ....................... 22 2.3.2 Vowel Intensity ....................... 26 2.3.3 Consonant Duration .................... 28 2.3.4 Vowel Quality ....................... 29 2.3.5 Mid-band Spectral Tilt ................... 30 2.3.6 Low-band Spectral Tilt ................... 32 2.3.7 Periodicity ......................... 32 2.3.8 Fundamental Frequency .................. 33 2.4 Summary .............................. 35 vi Chapter 3 General phonology ............................ 36 3.1 Introduction ............................. 36 3.2 Phoneme inventory ......................... 37 3.2.1 Consonants ......................... 38 3.2.2 Vowels ........................... 49 3.3 Morpheme features and phonotactics ............... 55 3.3.1 The canonical root ..................... 56 3.3.2 Glottalization ........................ 57 3.3.3 Nasalization ......................... 59 3.3.4 Vowel quality ........................ 63 3.3.5 Palatal phonotactics .................... 67 3.3.6 Labial phonotactics ..................... 71 3.4 Morphophonology of the verb ................... 72 3.4.1 Irregular verbs ....................... 73 3.4.2 Regular verbs ........................ 77 3.5 Summary .............................. 81 Chapter 4 Stress phonology ............................. 82 4.1 Introduction ............................. 82 4.2 Survey of stress descriptions in Mixtec varieties ......... 84 4.2.1 Default stress ........................ 84 4.2.2 Final stress ......................... 87 4.2.3 Morphologically-conditioned stress ............ 89 4.2.4 Tone-dependent stress ................... 91 4.3 Phonological description of stress ................. 95 4.3.1 Diagnostics of stress .................... 96 4.3.2 Stress placement ...................... 98 4.4 Stress-dependent properties .................... 104 4.4.1 Vowel quantity ....................... 105 4.4.2 Glottalization ........................ 112 4.4.3 Nasalization ......................... 117 4.5 The prosody of loanword adaptation ............... 119 4.5.1 Loanwords with minimal adaptation ........... 121 4.5.2 Vowel lengthening and syllable repair .......... 123 4.5.3 Assignment of the tonal melody ............. 126 4.6 Summary .............................. 129 Chapter 5 Acoustics of stress ............................ 130 5.1 Introduction ............................. 130 5.2 Methods ............................... 134 5.2.1 Sample ........................... 135 5.2.2 Elicitation and annotation ................. 141 5.2.3 Statistical analysis ..................... 142 5.3 Results ................................ 144 5.3.1 Discriminant analysis ................... 145 5.3.2 Vowel duration ....................... 146 5.3.3 Vowel intensity ....................... 148 vii 5.3.4 Onset duration ....................... 150 5.3.5 Following consonant duration ............... 152 5.3.6 Vowel quality ........................ 154 5.3.7 Mid-band spectral tilt ................... 156 5.3.8 Low-band spectral tilt ................... 158 5.3.9 Harmonics-to-Noise Ratio ................. 160 5.3.10 Cepstral Peak Prominence ................. 162 5.3.11 Fundamental frequency .................. 164 5.4 Discussion .............................. 167 Chapter 6 Tone phonology ............................. 170 6.1 Introduction ............................. 170 6.1.1 Overview of Mixtec tone systems ............. 170 6.1.2 Themes and claims ..................... 173 6.2 Tone in bimoraic stems ...................... 174 6.2.1 Couplet tone pattern inventory .............. 175 6.2.2 Tone trends of lexical categories ............. 180 6.2.3 Tone processes in couplets ................ 184 6.2.3.1 Non-triggering couplets ............. 185 6.2.3.2 Lowering couplets ................ 186 6.2.3.3 Raising couplets ................. 190 6.2.4 Summary .......................... 195 6.3 Tone in functional morphemes .................. 196 6.3.1 Enclitics ........................... 196 6.3.2 Proclitics .......................... 202 6.3.3 Summary .......................... 206 6.4 Survey of tone systems of Mixtec varieties ............ 207 6.4.1 Western Alta ........................ 210 6.4.1.1 Couplets ..................... 210 6.4.1.2 Clitics ....................... 218 6.4.2 Other Group A systems .................. 222 6.4.2.1 Alcozauca ..................... 222 6.4.2.2 San Juan Colorado ................ 223 6.4.2.3 Santo Domingo Nuxaa .............. 224 6.4.3 Systems outside Group A ................. 225 6.4.3.1 Ayutla de los Libres ............... 225 6.4.3.2 Santa María Peñoles ............... 226 6.4.3.3 San Juan Coatzospam .............. 228 6.4.4 Summary .......................... 228 6.5 Summary .............................. 230 Chapter 7 Acoustics of tone ............................. 231 7.1 Introduction ............................. 231 7.2 General design and elicitation ................... 234 7.3 Tonal coarticulation in plain stems ................ 239 7.3.1 CVCV stems ......................... 239 7.3.1.1 Analysis procedure ............... 240 viii 7.3.1.2 Results ...................... 241 7.3.2 CVV stems ......................... 245 7.3.2.1 Analysis Procedure ............... 246 7.3.2.2 Results ...................... 246 7.3.3 Discussion .......................... 249 7.4 The timing of tone contours .................... 251 7.4.1 Analysis procedure ..................... 252 7.4.2 Results ............................ 253 7.4.3 Discussion .......................... 256 7.5 The interaction of tone and glottalization ............ 256 7.5.1 Discriminant Analysis ................... 257 7.5.2 Fundamental Frequency .................. 259 7.5.3 Cepstral Peak Prominence ................. 261 7.5.4 Harmonics to Noise Ratio ................. 262 7.5.5 Low-band spectral tilt ................... 264 7.5.6 Discussion .......................... 266 7.6 Summary .............................. 267 Chapter 8 Conclusions ................................ 268 8.1 Summary .............................. 268 8.2 Contributions ............................ 270 8.3 Directions of future research ................... 272 Appendix A Mixtec Varieties ............................. 275 Appendix B Glossing Conventions .......................... 278 Appendix C Stress supplement ............................ 280 C.1 Stress study recorded utterances ................. 280 C.2 Regression models ......................... 297 Appendix D Tone Supplement ............................. 308 D.1 Tonal coarticulation in plain stems ................ 308 D.2 The timing of tone contours .................... 313 D.3 The interaction of tone and glottalization ............ 321 References ........................................ 326 ix LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1: The Otomanguean stock, in families