CHILDREN’S ETHNOECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE: SITUATED LEARNING AND THE CULTURAL TRANSMISSION OF SUBSISTENCE KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS AMONG Q’EQCHI’ MAYA by REBECCA KRISTYN ZARGER (Under the Direction of Elois Ann Berlin) ABSTRACT Knowledge of the biophysical environment is acquired through participation in cultural routines and immersion in a local human ecosystem. Presented here are the results of a study of the cultural transmission of traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) in Q’eqchi’ Maya communities of southern Belize. Qualitative and quantitative methods provided means to describe learning pathways and distribution of subsistence knowledge and skills among children and adults. Data collection focused on situated learning and teaching of TEK during childhood, as very little research of this type exists. Subsistence strategies and local cognitive categories of flora and fauna were documented using methodological approaches from ethnobiology. Food production and preparation, harvesting of herbs, fruits, and medicines, hunting and fishing activities, and construction of household items were included in the domain of subsistence. Systematic behavioral observation, ethnographic interviews, and participant observation provided data about formal and indigenous educational systems. Learning and teaching processes are shaped by cultural belief systems, ecology, socioeconomic institutions, and gender roles. Methods for describing development of expertise in TEK during childhood included pile sorts, freelists, child-guided home garden surveys, and a plant trail in the primary research site. Children develop extensive knowledge early in life. By the time children are 9 years of age, they know 85% of Q’eqchi’ names for plants near the household and 50% of plants elsewhere. Younger children categorize plants based primarily on morphology, and as they gain experience, utility and cultural salience are integrated. Significant and widely used species are learned first. Older siblings and cousins play an important teacher role for young children, in the course of caretaking and subsistence activities. Parents, grandparents, and other extended kin transfer knowledge of formalized tasks that require specific expertise. Overlapping work and play activities during childhood shape primary learning contexts. Intergenerational differences in subsistence knowledge and skills are shaped by social networks, socioeconomic opportunities, and changes in local ecology. The study integrates a focus on children and an activity-based approach to learning and distributed cognition with research in ethnoecology. Data are being implemented in biocultural diversity education initiatives in collaboration with local educators and parents. INDEX WORDS: Learning, Cognition, Cultural Transmission, Traditional ecological knowledge, Ethnobiology, Indigenous knowledge, Indigenous education systems, Environmental education, Ethnobotany, Ethnoecology, Social networks, Folkbiology, Ethnography of childhood, Children, Socialization, Situated learning, Cross- cultural child development, Community-based conservation, Biocultural diversity, Subsistence, Agroforestry, Ecological anthropology, Anthropology of education, Psychological anthropology, Informal learning, Experiential learning, Belize, Maya, Q’eqchi’, Kekchi, K’ekchi’ CHILDREN’S ETHNOECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE: SITUATED LEARNING AND THE CULTURAL TRANSMISSION OF SUBSISTENCE KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS AMONG Q’EQCHI’ MAYA by REBECCA KRISTYN ZARGER B.A., Wake Forest University, 1995 A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of The University of Georgia in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY ATHENS, GEORGIA 2002 © 2002 Rebecca K. Zarger All Rights Reserved CHILDREN’S ETHNOECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE: SITUATED LEARNING AND THE CULTURAL TRANSMISSION OF SUBSISTENCE KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS AMONG Q’EQCHI’ MAYA by REBECCA KRISTYN ZARGER Approved: Major Professor: Elois Ann Berlin Committee: Brent Berlin Alexandra Brewis Judith Preissle Paula Schwanenflugel Electronic Version Approved: Gordhan L. Patel Dean of the Graduate School The University of Georgia August 2002 DEDICATION For my grandpa, Thomas G. Zarger, who shared his own love of plants with me when I was small and the children of Toledo iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This document was made possible through a network of collaboration and support that extends from San Miguel village to Knoxville, Tennessee and many places in between. It would be impossible to thank everyone who helped see me and the project through to this point, so I would like to extend a general note of appreciation to all contributed to this project along the way. Foremost, thanks to the communities of San Miguel, Big Falls, and Santa Teresa, and all the people of Toledo district who made me feel welcome, shared meals with me, joked with me, and made me feel a part of their lives. The field work portion of the project was funded by a dissertation fellowship from the Inter-American Foundation. I was generously supported during write-up by the Spencer Foundation. Thanks also to my Spencer Fellows 2001/2002 cohort. In Belize, the support of the Department of Archaeology was greatly appreciated, particularly in granting a permit to conduct research. The Forest Department of Belize was also very helpful throughout my research. The curator of the national herbarium, Hector Mai, and Earl Codd, Natalie Rosado, and John Pineiro of the Conservation division all provided assistance. Thanks in particular for access to the herbarium resources and granting permits to collect botanical specimens. I am eternally indebted to Ramon Vargas, who spent many long hours in the Herbarium, assisting me with plant determinations and teaching me as much as he could about ethnobotany and systematics. In Toledo, the district manager of the Forest Department and officers of the Machaca station helped in many ways, and expressed interest in the ethnobotanical portion of the v project. Bonefacio Tut assisted with his expertise in Q’eqchi’ and Creole plant names and by always appearing over the top of the next hill in the Forest Department landrover when I was stranded by the side of the road when my truck broke down. Steven Darwin, Director of the Tulane University Herbarium, also kindly assisted with botanical determinations once I returned to the U.S. Thanks also to Darron Collins for sharing his data and experience with Q’eqchi’ ethnobotany. Nevia Quewell at the Central Statistical Office was extremely helpful in collecting information I needed from the Belize 2000 census. The staff at the SPEAR library and the Belize National Archives graciously assisted in locating documents and photocopying sources unavailable elsewhere. Thanks to Hipolito Contreras at the Land Information Centre, Ministry of Natural Resources for permission to reprint their maps. ESTAP in Punta Gorda also assisted with maps and other information relevant to the study. The many non-government organizations of Toledo all expressed interest in the study and are to be commended for their continued struggle to better the livelihoods of people of the district. The Maya Leaders Alliance, the Toledo Maya Cultural Council (TMCC), Kekchi Council of Belize (KCB), Toledo Maya Women’s Council (TMWC), and the Toledo Alcaldes Association (TAA), are defining the future for the Maya of southern Belize. I hope this document is helpful to them in their important work. Southern Alliance for Grassroots Empowerment (SAGE), Golden Stream Corridor Preserve, and Fauna and Flora International also provided me with the opportunity to lead an environmental education workshop with representatives from several communities. Special thanks to Pulcharia and Bartolo Teul of Big Falls for sharing their views and vi support. Thanks to TIDE for interest in the environmental education aspects of the project. Victor Cal, Dominga and Pedro Maquin of BITI were all extremely helpful during the study. Pedro and Mr. Baqui shared their knowledge of medicinal plants and invited me to participate with the Maya healers group. Dr. John Arnason also provided guidance in ethnobotanical collections. Joel Wainwright shared his extensive experiences and knowledge of Toledo with me, as well as my struggle to learn Q’eqchi’ from the great master teacher of Coban, Oscar Macz. I probably would not be where I am today without the Bardalez family and Don Owen-Lewis, who first welcomed me to Toledo with such openness. Don, thanks for sharing your unique perspective on life in Toledo and beyond and building a house with the best view in Toledo where I could make myself at home. It’s happened, Toledo is “under my skin” and that won’t ever change. Thanks for your visits and veterinary skills. Francisca, I can’t express how much you helped make me feel like I was part of a family when I lived in Big Falls and I couldn’t have done it with out you! You taught me so much about being a leader, cooking Belizean food, and being a wonderful mom. Thanks also to all the Bardalez boys: Jimmy, Ralph, Ritchie, Brian, and Edward, who always made me smile at the end of a long day. Keith Prufer deserves kudos for first introducing me to the Maya villages and taking me along on that trek “across” with Jimmy and Mr. Lewis where we saw the Harpie eagle. Others who were great support in Big Falls are the Coleman family, especially Perlene for special treats like cassava cake, all the Alemans for their support and friendship (and the occasional Belikin, or dance party). Delma Fajardo and her family were also good friends who were